A Public Sphere for AI
Published:
Jan 30, 2023
Keywords:
Artificial Intelligence Regulation Intellectual Property Governance
Abstract
The present article addresses key elements of the unique ontology of AI and argues that these require the expansion of the public sphere, in order to successfully manage the entry of new intelligent actors in legally regulated relationships which are based on the identification of causal connections. In this sense it attempts to link law and political science, given that the governance of any phenomenon or field includes law and in particular the detection, of legally interesting, causal relationships. Regulating such relationships effectively offers legal certainty, which in turn is a fundamental element of effective governance. In our self- evidently, human- centered world, whether we are talking about natural persons, or for legal persons, it is self- evident that there is, in the end, a human hand behind the causal relations with which law is involved. Once other, non- human, intelligent actors gradually enter the forefront, these causal relations become further complicated. It is on these complications and their impact that we focus.
Article Details
- Section
- Research Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under Creative Commons 4.0 (CC-BY 4.0) license, that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Abbott, R. (2016a). I Think, Therefore I Invent: Creative Computers and the Future of Patent Law. Boston College Law Review, 57(4), 1079-1126
Abbott, R. (2016b). Hal the Inventor: Big Data and Its Use by Artificial Intelligence. In Sugimoto, C. R., Ekbia, H. R. & Mattioli, M. (eds). Big Data Is Not A Monolith. MIT Press.
Abrams, D. S. (2009). Did TRIPS Spur Innovation? An Empirical Analysis of Patent Duration and Incentives to Innovate. Faculty Scholarship at Penn Law, 274.
Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp. 714 F.2d 1240 (3d Cir. 1983), as quoted in Madeleine de Cock Buning 1998, supra note 43, at p. 183
Bathae, Y. (2020). Artificial Intelligence Opinion Liability. Berkeley Technology Law Journal, 35, 113.
Bekey G, Lin P., & Abney, K. (2011). Ethical Implications of Intelligent Robots. In Krichmar, J. L. and Wagatsuma, H. (eds). Neuromorphic and Brain-Based Robots. Cambridge University Press.
Bekey, G. A. (2005). Autonomous Robots: From Biological Inspiration to Implementation and Control. MIT Press.
Bethards, M. (2004). Condemning a Patent: Taking Intellectual Property by Eminent Domain. AIPLA Quarterly Journal, 32(1), 81.
Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford University Press.
Bridy, A. (2012). Coding Creativity: Copyright and the Artificially Intelligent Author. Stanford Technology Law Review, 5, 1-28.
Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony. (1884). Ill U.S. 53.
Calo, M. R. (2011). Open Robotics. Maryland Law Review, 70(3), 571.
Camett, J. B. & Heinz, B. (2006). John Koza Built an Invention Machine. Popular Science. www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2006-04/john-koza-has-built-invention-machine [Accessed 16/09/2018].
Case C-145/10, Eva-Maria Painer/Standard Verlags [2011] at para. 94;
Case C-393/09, Bezpecnostní softwarová asociace [2010] ECR 2010 I-13971, para. 45;
Case C-393/09, Bezpecnostní softwarová asociace, [2010] supra note 24, para 49
Case C-403/08 and C-429/08, FA Premier League/Karen Murphy [2011] ECR 2011 I-09083, at para. 97;
Case C-5/08, Danske Dagblades Forening [2009] ECR I-06569, at para. 35;
Case C-604/10, Football Dataco/Yahoo [2012] ECLI:EU:C:2012:115, at para. 38
Castelvecchi, D. (2016). Can we open the black box of AI. Nature, 538. http://www.nature.com/news/can-we-open-the-black-box-of-ai-1.2073
Chalmers, D. (1996). The Conscious Mind, In Search of a Final Theory. Oxford University Press.
Chalmers, D. (2008). The Hard Problem of Consciousness. In Velmans M. & Schneider, S. (eds). The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness. Wiley-Blackwell.
Charniak, E, and McDermott, D. (1985). Introduction to Artificial Intelligence. Addison-Wesley
Clifford, R. D. (1997). Intellectual Property in the Era of the Creative Computer Program: Will the True Creator Please Stand Up?. Tulane Law Review, 71.
Cole, D. (2020). The Chinese Room Argument. In Zalta, E. N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2020 Edition). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/chinese-room/
Commission. (1989). Proposal for a Council Directive on the legal protection of computer programs. COM (88) 816 final, Article 1. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:51988PC0816&from=GA
Davis, E. & Marcus, G. (2015). Commonsense Reasoning and Commonsense Knowledge in Artificial Intelligence. Communications of the ACM, 58(9), 92-103. http://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2015/9/191169-commonsensereasoning-and-commonsense-knowledge-in-artificial-intelligence/fulltext#
de Bruin, R. (2016). Autonomous Intelligent Cars on the European Intersection of Liability and Privacy: Regulatory Challenges and the Road Ahead. European Journal of Risk Regulation, 7, 485.
de Cock Buning, M. (1998). Copyright Law and Information Technology: on the Limited Shelf-Life of Technology-Specific Regulations. University of Amsterdam.
de Cock Buning, M. (2016). Autonomous Intelligent Systems as Creative Agents under the EU Framework for Intellectual Property. European Journal of Risk Regulation, 7(2), 310-322.
Decker, M. (2014). Responsible Innovation for Adaptive Robots. In Battaglia, F., Mukerji, N., and Nida-Rümelin, J. (eds). Rethinking Responsibility in Science and Technology. Pisa University Press, 65-86.
Erickson, K. (2016). Defining the public domain in economic terms-- approaches and consequences for policy. Nordic Journal Of Applied Ethics, 10(1), 114. http://dx.doi.org/10.5324/eip.v10i1.1951
European Parliament. (2017). Report with recommendations to the Commission on Civil Law Rules on Robotics. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+REPORT+A8-2017–0005+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN
Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co., 499 U.S. 340 (1991)
Frye, B. L. (2018). The Lion, The Bat & The Thermostat: Metaphors on Consciousness. Savannah Law Review, 5, 13.
Gilbert, E. (2017). Artificial Intelligence: Teaching Machines to Learn Like Humans. INTEL. https://iq.intel.com/artificial-intelligence-teaching-machines-to-learn-like-humans/ [Accessed 27/03/2018].
Goldstein, P. (2014). GOLDSTEIN ON COPYRIGHT (3d ed. 2014).
Grinmelmann, J. (2016). There's No Such Thing as a Computer-Authored Work - and It's a Good Thing, Too. Columbia Journal of Law & the Arts, 39(3), 403.
Hallevy, G. (2010). The Criminal Liability of Artificial Intelligence Entities - from Science Fiction to Legal Social Control. Akron Intellectual Property Journal, 4(2), Article 1. https://ideaexchange.uakron.edu/akronintellectualproperty/vol4/iss2/1
Hallevy, G. (2018). Dangerous Robots – Artificial Intelligence vs. Human Intelligence. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3121905
Hashiguchi, M. (2017). The Global Artificial Intelligence Revolution Challenges Patent Eligibility Laws. Journal of Business & Technology Law, 13(1). https://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/jbtl/vol13/iss1/2
Hattenbach, B. & Glucoft, J. (2015). Patents in an Era of Infinite Monkeys and Artificial Intelligence. Stan. Tech. L. Rev., 19, 32.
Heath, N. (2018). What is AI? Everything you need to know about Artificial Intelligence. https://www.zdnet.com/article/what-is-ai-everything-you-need-to-know-about-artificial-intelligence/ [Accessed 01/02/2019].
Hern, A. (2014). What is the Turing test? And are we all doomed now?, The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2014/jun/09/what-is-the-alan-turing-test [Accessed 18/06/2020].
Hristov, K. (2017). Artificial Intelligence and the Copyright Dilemma. IDEA, 57, 431.
Huszár F. (2015). The Two Kinds of Uncertainty an AI Agent Has to Represent. inFERENCe, https://www.inference.vc/the-two-kinds-of-uncertainties-in-reinforcement-learning-2/ (Accessed 06/07/2019)
Hutter, M. (2010). Universal Artificial Intelligence: Sequential Decisions Based on Algorithmic Probability. Springer.
Jaszi, P. (1992). On the Author Effect: Contemporary Copyright and Collective Creativity. Cardozo Arts & Entertainment Law Journal, 10(2), 293-320.
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983). Mental Models. Towards a Cognitive Science of Language, Inference and Consciousness. Cambridge University Press.
Julie E. Cohen, J. E. (2006). Copyright, Commodification, and Culture: Locating the Public Domain. In Guibault, L. & Hugenholtz, P. B. (eds). The future of the public domain: identifying the commons in information law. Berkeley Law.
Karnow, C. E. A. (1996). Liability for Distributed Artificial Intelligences. Berkeley Technology Law Journal, 11, 147.
Karnow, C. E. A. (2016). The application of traditional tort theory to embodied machine intelligence. In Calo, Froomkin, and Kerr (eds). Robot Law. Edward Elgar.
Keats, J. (2006). John Koza Has Built an Invention Machine. Popular Science. http:// www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2006-04/john-koza-has-builtinvention-machine
Khoury, A. (2016). Intellectual property rights for hubots: On the legal implications of human-like robots as innovators and creators. Cardozo Arts & Ent. LJ, 35, 635.
Kim, D. (2018). Intellectual Property in The Fourth Industrial Revolution Era. Les Nouvelles, 53(1), 20.
Knight, W. (2017). The Dark Secret at the Heart of Al. MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/604087/the-dark-secret-at-the-heart-of-ai/
Kowert, W. (2017). The Foreseeability Of Human-Artificial Intelligence Interactions. Texas Law Review, 96, 181.
Lake, B. M., Ullman, T. D., Tenenbaum, J. B., and Gershman, S. J. (2016). Building Machines That Learn and Think Like People. Center for Brains, Minds and Machines, MEMO NO. 046. htttp://www.mit.edu/~tomeru/papers/machines_that_think.pdf
Laton, D. (2017). Manhattan_Project.Exe: A Nuclear Option for the Digital Age. Catholic University Journal of Law & Technology, 25, 94.
M. Neil Browne, M. N. & Harrison-Spoerl, R. R. (2008). Putting Expert Testimony in Its Epistemological Place: What Predictions of Dangerousness in Court Can Teach Us. Marquette Law Review, 91, 1119.
MacCoun, R. (2993). Is There a “Deep-Pocket” Bias in the Tort System?. Rand Institute of Civil Justice.
Manderieux, L. (2010). Secured Transactions as a Tool for Better Use of Intellectual Property Rights and of Intellectual Property Licensing (including Patent Licensing). Uniform Law Review, 15(2), 447-457.
Marchant, G. E. & Lindor, R. A. (2012). The Coming Collision Between Autonomous Vehicles and the Liability System. Santa Clara Law Review, 52(4), 1321.
Matthias, A. (2004). The responsibility gap: Ascribing responsibility for the actions of learning automata. Ethics and Information Technology, 6, 175 -183.
McCarthy, J. (2008). The Well-Designed Child. Artificial Intelligence, 172(18), 2003-2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.artint.2008.10.001
McGinn, C. (1991). The Problem of Consciousness: Essays Towards a Resolution. Basil Blackwell.
Michael Krauss, M. (1989). Property, Monopoly, and Intellectual Rights. Non-Posnerian Law and Economics Symposium; Hamline Law Review, 12(2), 305.
Midway Mfg. Co. v. Artic Intern., Inc., 704 F. 2d 1009, 1011 (7d Cir. 1983)
Moravec, H. (1976). The role of raw power in intelligence. www.frc.ri.cmu.edu/users/hpm/project.archive/general.articles/1975/Raw.Power.html [Accessed 14/07/2019].
Mordvintsev, A., Olah, C., and Tyka, M. (2015). Inceptionism: Going Deeper into Neural Networks. Google Research. https://research.googleblog.com/2015/06/inceptionismgoing-deeper-into-neural.html
Müller, V. C. and Bostrom, N. (2016). Future Progress In Artificial Intelligence: A Survey of Expert Opinion. In Müller, V. C. (ed.). Fundamental Issues of Artificial Intelligence. Springer International Publishing.
Nersessian, D. & Mancha, R. (2021). From Automation to Autonomy: Legal and Ethical Responsibility Gaps in Artificial Intelligence Innovation. Michigan Technology Law Review, 27, 55.
Omohundro, S. M. (2008). The Basic AI Drives. In Wang, P., Goertzel, B and Franklin, S. (eds), Artificial General Intelligence 2008: Proceedings of the First AGI Conference. IOS Press
Palace, V. M. (2019). What if Artificial Intelligence Wrote This? Artificial Intelligence and Copyright Law. Florida Law Review, 71(1), 5. https://scholarship.law.ufl.edu/flr/vol71/iss1/5
Patry, W. F. (2016). PATRY ON COPYRIGHT § § 3:19.
Pearlman, R. (2018). Recognizing Artificial Intelligence (AI) As Authors And Inventors Under U.S. Intellectual Property Law. Richmond Journal of Law and Technology, 24, 2.
Plotkin, R. (2009). The Genie in the Machine: How Computer-Automated Inventing Is Revolutionizing Law and Business. Stanford Law Books
Poole, D. L. and Mackworth, A. K. (2010). Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents. Cambridge University Press.
Prosser, W. L., Keeton, W. P., Dobbs, D. B., Keeton, R. E., and Owen, D. G. (1984). Prosser and Keeton on Torts, 5th Edition.
Pub. L. No. 94-553, 90 Stat. 2541 (1976) (codified as amended at 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-810 (2012)
Pyle, D. & San Jose, C. (2015). An executive’s guide to machine learning. McKinsley Quarterly. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/high-tech/our-insights/an-executives-guide-to-machine-learning [Accessed 03/02/2019].
Ralston, W. T. (2005). Copyright in Computer-Composed Music: Hal Meets Handel. Journal of the Copyright Society of the U.S.A, 52(3), 281-284.
Rich, E. and Knight, K. (1991). Artificial Intelligence. McGraw-Hill
Righetti, L. (2016). Emerging technology and future autonomous weapons. In ICRC, Autonomous Weapon Systems: Implications of Increasing Autonomy in the Critical Functions of Weapons. International Committee of the Red Cross.
Ritchie, G. (2007). Some Empirical Criteria for Attributing Creativity to a Computer Program. Minds and Machines, 17, 67–99.
Russell, S. and Norvig, P. (2010). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (Third Edition). Prentice Hall.
Sachs, R. (2016). The Mind as Computer Metaphor: Benson and the Mistaken Application of Mental Steps to Software (Part 3), Bilskiblog.
Salzberger, E. (2006). Economic Analysis of the Public Domain. In Guibault, L. & Hugenholtz, P. B. (eds). The future of the public domain: identifying the commons in information law. Berkeley Law.
Samore, W. (2013). Artificial Intelligence and the Patent System: Can a New Tool Render a Once Patentable Idea Obvious?. Journal of Science and Technology Law, 29, 113.
Samuelson, P. (1986). Allocating Ownership Rights in Computer-Generated Works. University of Pittsburgh Law Review, 47, 1185-1228.
SAS (n.d.). Machine Learning: What it is and Why it Matters. SAS INSTITUTE, http://www.sas.com/en_us/insights/analytics/machine-learning.html
Scherer, M. U. (2016). Regulating Artificial Intelligence Systems: Risks, Challenges, Competencies, and Strategies. Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, 29(2), 354.
Schuster, W. M. (2018). Artificial Intelligence and Patent Ownership. Washington and Lee Law Review, 75, 1945.
Seseri, R. (2018). The Problem winh "Eplainable" Al. TECHCRUNCH. https://techcrunch.com/2018 /06/14/the-problem-with-explainable-ai/
Shi, K. (2016). Beats by Al. IBM RES. https://www.ibm.com/blogs/research2016/07/beats-by-ai
Solow-Niederman, Α. (2020). Administering Artificial Intelligence. Southern California Law Review, 93, 633.
Solum, L. B. (1992). Legal Personhood for Artificial Intelligences. North Carolina Law Review, 70(4), 1231.
Suchman, L. and Weber, J. (2016). Human-Machine Autonomies. In Bhuta, N., Beck, S., Geib, R., Yan Liu, H. and Kreb, C. (eds). AUTONOMOUS WEAPON SYSTEMS: LAW, ETHICS, POLICY. Cambridge University Press.
Tanz, J. (2016). Soon We Won't Program Computers. We'll Train Them Like Dogs. WIRED. https:// www.wired.com/2016/05/the-end-of-code/ [Accessed 27/03/2018].
The Guardian. (2020, September 8). A robot wrote this entire article. Are you scared yet, human?. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/sep/08/robot-wrote-this-article-gpt-3
Thomason, R. (2003). Logic and Artificial Intelligence. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ai/ (Accessed 29/08/2018).
Tito, J. (2017). Destination unknown: Exploring the impact of Artificial Intelligence on Government. Centre for Public Impact.
Tremblay, M. (2015). Should Robots Have Legal Rights?. Robotoshop. http://www.robotshop.com/blog/en/ should-robots-have-legal-rights-17333
Turing, A. M. (1950). Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Mind, 59(236), 433–60.
U.S. Copyright Office. (1965). Sixty-eighth annual report of the register of copyrights. Washington, DC. https://www.copyright.gov/reports/annual/archive/ar-1965.pdf
U.S. Copyright Office. (2017). Conpendium Of U.S. Copyright Office Practices § 313.2 (3d ed.). https://www.copyright.gov/comp3/docs/compendium.pdf [https://permacc/RY7TG6KE
U.S. National Commission On New Technological Uses Of Copyrighted Works. (1978). Final Report of The National Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works. https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015026832934
UK Government Office for Science. (2015). Artificial intelligence: opportunities and implications for the future of decision making. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/566075/gs-16-19-artificial-intelligenceai-report.pdf
United Nations. (1975). The Role of Patents in the Transfer of Technology to Developing Countries. E. 75. II. D. 6.
Urban, T. (2015). The AI Revolution: The Road to Superintelligence. waitbutwhy.com/2015/01/artificial-intelligence-revolution-1.html [Accessed 28/06/2018]
van den Oord, A., Dieleman, S., Zen, H., Simonyan, K., Vinyals, O., Graves, A., Kalchbrenner, N., Senior, A., Kavukcuoglu, K. et al. (2016). WaveNet: A Generative Model for Raw Audio. https://arxiv.org/abs/1609.03499
Vladeck, D. C. (2014). Machines Without Principals: Liability Rules and Artificial Intelligence. Washington Law Review, 89, 117.
Wallach, W. (2011). From Robots to Techno Sapiens: Ethics, Law and Public Policy in the Developments of Robotics and Neurotechnologies. Law, Innovation and Technology, 3(2), 185.
William Fisher, W. (2001). Theories of Intellectual Property. In Munzer, S. R. and Postema, G. (eds). New Essays in the Legal and Political Theory of Property. Cambridge University Press.
World Intellectual Property Organization. (1979). Berne Convention for the protection of Literary and Artistic works, as amended on 1979. WIPO, TRT/BERNE/00.1.
World Intellectual Property Organization. (2014). WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook.
Yanisky-Ravid, S., & Liu, X. J. (2017). When artificial intelligence systems produce inventions: the 3A era and an alternative model for patent law. Cardozo Law Review, 39(6), 2215-2263.
