The long-term effect of childhood trauma and alexithymia on mental distress during the COVID-19 pandemic in Greece
Published:
Sep 7, 2024
Keywords:
childhood trauma, emotional abuse, alexithymia, depression, anxiety, resilience, COVID-19
Abstract
The study investigated the effect of childhood trauma, alexithymia, and other psychological risk and resilience factors on peripandemic mental distress in Greece. Alexithymia was hypothesized to mediate the association between early trauma and COVID-19-related anxiety and depression. A sample of 557 adults was recruited through a web-based study and self-reported questionnaires of childhood trauma, emotional regulation, psychological attributes, depression, and anxiety were collected. Statistical analyses included hierarchical multiple regressions and structural equation modeling. Childhood emotional abuse was associated with higher levels of anxiety and depression and this association was partially mediated by the difficulty to identify feelings. In addition, psychological attributes indicating resilience or vulnerability were associated with higher or lower levels of mental distress, respectively. Pandemic factors were not significant. This research highlights the long-term effects of early trauma and alexithymia compromising mental health during a global health threat, such as COVID-19, and points to the significance of emotion regulation in public health prevention and intervention programs.
Article Details
- How to Cite
-
Anagnostopoulou, T., Kalaitzaki, A., Tsouvelas, G., & Tamiolaki, A. (2024). The long-term effect of childhood trauma and alexithymia on mental distress during the COVID-19 pandemic in Greece. Psychology: The Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society, 29(2), 57–78. https://doi.org/10.12681/psy_hps.28172
- Section
- RESEARCH PAPERS
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
The journal PSYCHOLOGY adopts a Platinum open-access policy. Submission, processing or publication costs are waived by the Hellenic Psychological Society. Papers published in the journal PSYCHOLOGY are licensed under a 'Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International' licence. The authors reserve the copyright of their work and grant the journal the right of its first publication. Third-party licensees are allowed to use the published paper immediately after publication as they wish, provided they retain the defined by the license copyright formalities, regarding the reference to its author(s) and its initial publication in the journal PSYCHOLOGY. Moreover, any adjusted work should be shared under the same reuse rights, so with the same CC license.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Allen, M. S., Iliescu, D., & Greiff, S. (2022). Single item measures in psychological science: A call to action [Editorial]. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 38(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000699
Anagnostopoulou, T., Siannis, F., Kyriafinis, D., & Sela, M. (2022). Patterns of adjustment during the Covid-19 pandemic in Greece: the Resilient, the Rebels and the Internalizers. Psychology: The Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society, 27(3), 26–46. https://doi.org/10.12681/psy_hps.28495
Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., Dube, S. R., & Giles, W. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256(3), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4
Antonopoulou, Z., Konstantakopoulos, G., Τzinieri-Coccosis, M., & Sinodinou, C. (2017). Rates of childhood trauma in a sample of university students in Greece: The Greek version of the Early Trauma Inventory-Self Report. Psychiatriki, 28(1), 19–27. https://doi.org/10.22365/jpsych.2017.281.19
Antonovsky, A. (1993). The structure and properties of the Sense of Coherence scale. Social Science & Medicine, 36(6), 725–733. https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-9536(93)90033-Z
Asmundson, G. J. G., & Taylor, S. (2020). Coronaphobia: Fear and the 2019-nCoV outbreak. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 70, 102196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102196
Bagby, R. M., Parker, J. D. A., & Taylor, G. J. (2020). Twenty-five years with the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 131, Article 109940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2020.109940
Barrett, L. F. (2017). The theory of constructed emotion: An active inference account of interoception and categorization. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 12(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsw154
Barrett, L. F., & Gross, J. J. (2001). Emotional intelligence: A process model of emotion representation and regulation. In T. J. Mayne & G. A. Bonanno (Eds.), Emotions: Current issues and future directions (pp. 286–310). Guilford Press.
Barzilay, R., Moore, T. M., Greenberg, D. M., DiDomenico, G. E., Brown, L. A., White, L. K., Gur, R. C., & Gur, R. E. (2020). Resilience, COVID-19-related stress, anxiety and depression during the pandemic in a large population enriched for healthcare providers. Translational psychiatry, 10(1), 291. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-00982-4
Bergkvist, L., & Rossiter, J. R. (2007). The predictive validity of multiple-item versus single-item measures of the same constructs. Journal of Marketing Research, 44(2), 175-184. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-9012-4-1
Bergkvist, L., & Rossiter, J. R. (2009). Tailor-made single-item measures of doubly concrete constructs. International Journal of Advertising, 28(4), 607-621. https://doi.org/10.2501/S0265048709200783
Boisjoli, C., & Hébert, M. (2020). Importance of telling the unutterable: Alexithymia among sexually abused children. Psychiatry Research, 291, 113238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113238
Bonanno, G. A., Westphal, M., & Mancini, A. D. (2011). Resilience to loss and potential trauma. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7, 511–535. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104526
Bowling, A. (2005). Just one question: If one question works, why ask several? Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 59, 342-345. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.2004.021204
Bradley, B., DeFife, J. A., Guarnaccia, C., Phifer, J., Fani, N., Ressler, K. J., & Westen, D. (2011). Emotion dysregulation and negative affect: Association with psychiatric symptoms. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72(5), 685–691. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.10m06409blu
Bremner, J. D., Bolus, R., & Mayer, E. A. (2007). Psychometric properties of the Early Trauma Inventory-Self Report. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195(3), 211–218. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.nmd.0000243824.84651.6c
Brückl, T. M., Wittchen, H. U., Höfler, M., Pfister, H., Schneider, S., & Lieb, R. (2007). Childhood separation anxiety and the risk of subsequent psychopathology: Results from a community study. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 76(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1159/000096364
Burklund, L. J., Creswell, J. D., Irwin, M. R., & Lieberman, M. D. (2014). The common and distinct neural bases of affect labeling and reappraisal in healthy adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 221. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00221
Cai, J., Li, J., Liu, D., Gao, S., Zhao, Y., Zhang, J., & Liu, Q. (2023). Long-term effects of childhood trauma subtypes on adult brain function. Brain and Behavior, 13(5), e2981. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.2981
Cicchetti, D. & Rogosch, F. A. (1997). The role of self-organization in the promotion of resilience in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 9(4), 797–815. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579497001442
Cicchetti, D. (2006). Development and Psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.) Developmental psychopathology, Volume 1: Theory and method (pp. 1-23). John Wiley & Sons.
Compare, A., Zarbo, C., Shonin, E., Van Gordon, W., & Marconi, C. (2014). Emotional regulation and depression: A potential mediator between heart and mind. Cardiovascular Psychiatry and Neurology, 2014, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/324374
Conrad, R., Wegener, I., Imbierowicz, K., Liedtke, R., & Geiser, F. (2009). Alexithymia, temperament and character as predictors of psychopathology in patients with major depression. Psychiatry Research, 165(1-2), 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2007.10.013
Costa, P. T., Jr., Somerfield, M. R., & McCrae, R. R. (1996). Personality and coping: A reconceptualization. In M. Zeidner & N. S. Endler (Eds.), Handbook of coping: Theory, Research, Applications (pp. 44–61). John Wiley & Sons.
Cotton, S. M., Wright, A., Harris, M. G., Jorm, A. F., & McGorry, P. D. (2006). Influence of gender on mental health literacy in young Australians. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 40(9), 790- 796.
Cross, D., Fani, N., Powers, A., & Bradley, B. (2017). Neurobiological Development in the Context of Childhood Trauma. Clinical Psychology: A publication of the Division of Clinical Psychology of the American Psychological Association, 24(2), 111–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12198
Dadaczynski, K., Okan, O., Messer, M., & Rathmann, K. (2022). University students' sense of coherence, future worries and mental health: Findings from the German COVID-HL-survey. Health Promotion International, 37(1). https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daab070
Doom, J. R., Seok, D., Narayan, A. J., & Fox, K. R. (2021). Adverse and Benevolent Childhood Experiences Predict Mental Health During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Adversity and Resilience Science, 2(3), 193–204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42844-021-00038-6
Fernandes, V., & Osório, F. (2015). Are there associations between early emotional trauma and anxiety disorders? Evidence from a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. European Psychiatry, 30(6), 756-764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2015.06.004
Fuchs, C., & Diamantopoulos, A. (2009). Using single-item measures for construct measurement in management research: Conceptual issues and application guidelines. Die Betriebswirtschaft, 69(2), 195-210.
Gewirtz-Meydan, A., & Lassri, D. (2022). A profile analysis of COVID-19 stress-related reactions: The importance of early childhood abuse, psychopathology, and interpersonal relationships. Child abuse & neglect, 130(Pt 1), 105442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105442
Glowacz, F., & Schmits, E. (2020). Psychological distress during the COVID-19 lockdown: The young adults most at risk. Psychiatry Research, 293, 113486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113486
Grabe, H. J., Spitzer, C., & Freyberger, H. J. (2004). Alexithymia and personality in relation to dimensions of psychopathology. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(7), 1299–1301. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.7.1299
Gratz, K. L., & Roemer, L. (2004). Multidimensional assessment of emotion regulation and dysregulation: Development, factor structure, and initial validation of the Difficulties in Εmotion Regulation Scale. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 26(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOBA.0000007455.08539.94
Gross, J. J., & Jazaieri, H. (2014). Emotion, emotion regulation, and psychopathology: An affective science perspective. Clinical Psychological Science, 2(4), 387–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614536164
Hamel, C., Rodrigue, C., Clermont, C., Hébert, M., Paquette, L., & Dion, J. (2024). Alexithymia as a mediator of the associations between child maltreatment and internalizing and externalizing behaviors in adolescence. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 6359. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-56909-2
Hébert, M., Boisjoli, C., Blais, M., & Oussaïd, E. (2018). Alexithymia as a mediator of the relationship between child sexual abuse and psychological distress in adolescence: A short-term longitudinal study. Psychiatry Research, 260, 468–472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.12.022
Hemming, L., Haddock, G., Shaw, J., & Pratt, D. (2019). Alexithymia and its associations with depression, suicidality, and aggression: An overview of the literature. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 203. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00203
Honkalampi, K., Hintikka, J., Tanskanen, A., Lehtonen, J., & Viinamäki, H. (2000). Depression is strongly associated with alexithymia in the general population. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 48(1), 99–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3999(99)00083-5
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118
Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., Hardcastle, K. A., Sethi, D., Butchart, A., Mikton, C., Jones, L., & Dunne, M. P. (2017). The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet. Public Health, 2(8), e356–e366. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30118-4
Huo, L., Zhou, Y., Li, S., Ning, Y., Zeng, L., Liu, Z., Qian, W., Yang, J., Zhou, X., Liu, T., & Zhang, X. Y. (2021). Burnout and its relationship with depressive symptoms in medical staff during the COVID-19 epidemic in China. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 616369. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.616369
Infurna, M. R., Reichl, C., Parzer, P., Schimmenti, A., Bifulco, A., & Kaess, M. (2016). Associations between depression and specific childhood experiences of abuse and neglect: A meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 190, 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2015.09.006
Janiri, D., Moccia, L., Dattoli, L., Pepe, M., Molinaro, M., De Martin, V., Chieffo, D., Di Nicola, M., Fiorillo, A., Janiri, L., & Sani, G. (2021). Emotional dysregulation mediates the impact of childhood trauma on psychological distress: First Italian data during the early phase of COVID-19 outbreak. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 55(11), 1071–1078. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004867421998802
Jones, T. M., Nurius, P., Song, C., & Fleming, C. M. (2018). Modeling life course pathways from adverse childhood experiences to adult mental health. Child Abuse & Neglect, 80, 32–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.03.005
Jorm, A. F., Korten, A. E., Jacomb, P. A., Christensen, H., Rodgers, B., & Pollitt, P. (1997). “Mental health literacy”: A survey of the public's ability to recognise mental disorders and their beliefs about the effectiveness of treatment. Medical Journal of Australia, 166(4), 182-186. https://doi.org/10.5694/j.1326-5377.1997.tb140071.x
Kajanoja, J., Scheinin, N. M., Karukivi, M., Karlsson, L., & Karlsson, H. (2019). Alcohol and tobacco use in men: The role of alexithymia and externally oriented thinking style. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 45(2), 199–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2018.1528267
Kalaitzaki, A. (2021). Posttraumatic symptoms, posttraumatic growth, and internal resources among the general population in Greece: A nation-wide survey amid the first COVID-19 lockdown. International Journal of Psychology. First published: 03 March 2021. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijop.12750
Kalaitzaki, A., Tsouvelas, G., Tamiolaki, A., & Konstantakopoulos, G. (2022). Post‐traumatic stress symptoms during the first and second COVID‐19 lockdown in Greece: Rates, risk, and protective factors. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing. First published: 17 October 2021, https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12945
Kalaitzaki, A., Tsouvelas, G., & Tamiolaki, A. (2023). Perceived posttraumatic growth and its psychosocial predictors during two consecutive COVID-19 lockdowns. International Journal of Stress Management, 30(3), 223–234. https://doi.org/10.1037/str0000273
Kalokerinos, E. K., Erbas, Y., Ceulemans, E., & Kuppens, P. (2019). Differentiate to regulate: Low negative emotion differentiation is associated with Ineffective use but not selection of emotion-regulation strategies. Psychological Science, 30(6), 863–879. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619838763
Karukivi, M., Hautala, L., Kaleva, O., Haapasalo-Pesu, K. M., Liuksila, P. R., Joukamaa, M., & Saarijärvi, S. (2010). Alexithymia is associated with anxiety among adolescents. Journal of Affective Disorders, 125(1-3), 383–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.02.126
Kashdan, T. B., Ferssizidis, P., Collins, R. L., & Muraven, M. (2010). Emotion differentiation as resilience against excessive alcohol use: An ecological momentary assessment in underage social drinkers. Psychological Science, 21(9), 1341–1347. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610379863
Kessler, R. C., McLaughlin, K. A., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alhamzawi, A. O., Alonso, J., Angermeyer, M., Benjet, C., Bromet, E., Chatterji, S., de Girolamo, G., Demyttenaere, K., Fayyad, J., Florescu, S., Gal, G., Gureje, O., . . . Williams, D. R. (2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychopathology in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 197(5), 378–385. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.080499
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(6), 706–716. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02202.x
Kline, R. (2005). Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling (2nd ed.). Guilford.
Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 16(9), 606–613. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x
Ledermann, K., von Känel, R., Barth, J., Schnyder, U., Znoj, H., Schmid, J. P., Meister Langraff, R. E., & Princip, M. (2020). Myocardial infarction-induced acute stress and post-traumatic stress symptoms: The moderating role of an alexithymia trait - difficulties identifying feelings. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), 1804119. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1804119
Li, R., Kajanoja, J., Lindblom, J., Korja, R., Karlsson, L., Karlsson, H., Nolvi, S., & Karukivi, M. (2022). The role of alexithymia and perceived stress in mental health responses to COVID-19: A conditional process model. Journal of Affective Disorders, 306, 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.03.024
Linn, B. K., Stasiewicz, P. R., Fillo, J., & Bradizza, C. M. (2020). The great disrupter: Relationship of alexithymia to emotion regulation processes and smoking among pregnant women. Substance Use & Misuse, 55(7), 1113–1121. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2020.1729198
Linn, B. K., Zhao, J., Bradizza, C. M., Lucke, J. F., Ruszczyk, M. U., & Stasiewicz, P. R. (2021). Alexithymia disrupts emotion regulation processes and is associated with greater negative affect and alcohol problems. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 77(12), 2915–2928. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23279
Liu, H., Tao, T. J., Chan, S. K. Y., Ma, J. C. H., Lau, A. Y. T., Yeung, E. T. F., Hobfoll, S. E., & Hou, W. K. (2024). Daily routine disruptions and psychiatric symptoms amid COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis of data from 0.9 million individuals in 32 countries. BMC Medicine, 22(1), 49. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-024-03253-x
Lowe, S. R., Hennein, R., Feingold, J. H., Peccoralo, L. A., Ripp, J. A., Mazure, C. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2021). Are women less psychologically resilient than men? Background stressors underlying gender differences in reports of stress-related psychological sequelae. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 83(1), 21br14098. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.21br14098
Luo, Z., Shen, Y., Yuan, J., Zhao, Y., Liu, Z., & Shangguan, F. (2021). Perceived stress, resilience, and anxiety among pregnant Chinese women during the COVID-19 pandemic: Latent profile analysis and mediation analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 696132. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.696132
Magin, Z. E., David, A. B., Carney, L. M., Park, C. L., Gutierrez, I. A., & George, L. S. (2021). Belief in God and psychological distress: Is it the belief or certainty of the belief? Religions, 12(9), 757. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12090757
Maniglio, R. (2013). Child sexual abuse in the etiology of anxiety disorders: A systematic review of reviews. Trauma, Violence & Abuse, 14(2), 96–112. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838012470032
Masten, A. S. (2014). Global perspectives on resilience in children and youth. Child Development, 85(1), 6–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12205
Mazza, C., Ricci, E., Biondi, S., Colasanti, M., Ferracuti, S., Napoli, C., & Roma, P. (2020). A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Italian people during the COVID-19 pandemic: Immediate psychological responses and associated factors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(9), 3165. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17093165
McGee, S. L., Höltge, J., Maercker, A., & Thoma, M. V. (2018). Sense of coherence and stress-related resilience: Investigating the mediating and moderating mechanisms in the development of resilience following stress or adversity. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, Article 378. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00378
McKay, M. T., Cannon, M., Chambers, D., Conroy, R. M., Coughlan, H., Dodd, P., Healy, C., O'Donnell, L., & Clarke, M. C. (2021). Childhood trauma and adult mental disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal cohort studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 143(3), 189–205. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13268
McLaughlin, K. A., Colich, N. L., Rodman, A. M., & Weissman, D. G. (2020). Mechanisms linking childhood trauma exposure and psychopathology: A transdiagnostic model of risk and resilience. BMC Medicine, 18(1), 96. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-020-01561-6
McLaughlin, K. A., Kubzansky, L. D., Dunn, E. C., Waldinger, R., Vaillant, G., & Koenen, K. C. (2010). Childhood social environment, emotional reactivity to stress, and mood and anxiety disorders across the life course. Depression and Anxiety, 27(12), 1087–1094. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20762
Metz, S. M., Wyrwich. K. W., Babu, A. N., Kroenke, K., Tierney, W. M., & Wolinsky, F. D. (2007). Validity of patient-reported health-related quality of life global ratings of change using structural equation modeling. Quality of Life Research: An International Journal of Quality of Life Aspects of Treatment. Care and Rehabilitation, 16(7), 1193–1202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-007-9225-1.
Milrod, B., Markowitz, J. C., Gerber, A. J., Cyranowski, J., Altemus, M., Shapiro, T., Hofer, M., & Glatt, C. (2014). Childhood separation anxiety and the pathogenesis and treatment of adult anxiety. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 171(1), 34–43. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13060781
Muniz, C. N., Fox, B., Miley, L. N., Delisi, M., Cigarran, G. P. II, & Birnbaum, A. (2019). The effects of adverse childhood experiences on internalizing versus externalizing outcomes. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 46(4), 568–589. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854819826213
Nieto, M., Visier, M. E., Silvestre, I. N., Navarro, B., Serrano, J. P., & Martínez-Vizcaíno, V. (2023). Relation between resilience and personality traits: The role of hopelessness and age. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 64(1), 53–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12866
Nunnally, J. C., Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric Theory (3rd Ed.). McGraw-Hill.
O'Brien, C., Gaher, R. M., Pope, C., & Smiley, P. (2008). Difficulty identifying feelings predicts the persistence of trauma symptoms in a sample of veterans who experienced military sexual trauma. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 196(3), 252–255. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e318166397d
Osimo, S. A., Aiello, M., Gentili, C., Ionta, S., & Cecchetto, C. (2021). The influence of personality, resilience, and alexithymia on mental health during COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 630751. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.630751
Paivio, S. C., & McCulloch, C. R. (2004). Alexithymia as a mediator between childhood trauma and self-injurious behaviors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28(3), 339–354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2003.11.018
Parker, J. D. A., Michael Bagby, R., Taylor, G. J., Endler, N. S., & Schmitz, P. (1993). Factorial validity of the 20‐item Toronto Alexithymia Scale. European Journal of Personality, 7(4), 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2410070403
Quesnel-Vallée, A., & Taylor, M. (2012). Socioeconomic pathways to depressive symptoms in adulthood: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979. Social Science & Medicine, 74(5), 734–743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.10.038
Rieffe, C., & De Rooij, M. (2012). The longitudinal relationship between emotion awareness and internalising symptoms during late childhood. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 21(6), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-012-0267-8
Russo, J. E., Dhruve, D. M., & Oliveros, A. D. (2022). Coping with COVID-19: Testing the stress sensitization hypothesis among adults with and without a history of adverse childhood experiences. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 10, 100379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadr.2022.100379
Sagar, R., Talwar, S., Desai, G., & Chaturvedi, S. K. (2021). Relationship between alexithymia and depression: A narrative review. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 63(2), 127–133. https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_738_19
Schimmenti, A., & Caretti, V. (2018). Attachment, trauma, and alexithymia. In O. Luminet, R. M. Bagby, & G. J. Taylor (Eds.), Alexithymia: Advances in research, theory, and clinical practice (pp. 127–141). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108241595.010
Seaborn, K., Chignell, M., & Gwizdka, J. (2021). Psychological resilience during COVID-19: A meta-review protocol. BMJ Open, 11(6), e051417. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-051417
Seitz, K. I., Bertsch, K., & Herpertz, S. C. (2021). A prospective study of mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic in childhood trauma-exposed individuals: Social support matters. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 34(3), 477–486. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22660
Shank, L. M., Tanofsky-Kraff, M., Kelly, N. R., Jaramillo, M., Rubin, S. G., Altman, D. R., Byrne, M. E., LeMay-Russell, S., Schvey, N. A., Broadney, M. M., Brady, S. M., Yang, S. B., Courville, A. B., Ramirez, S., Crist, A. C., Yanovski, S. Z., & Yanovski, J. A. (2019). The association between alexithymia and eating behavior in children and adolescents. Appetite, 142, Article 104381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2019.104381
Sharma, V., Marin, D. B., Koenig, H. K., Feder, A., Iacoviello, B. M., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2017). Religion, spirituality, and mental health of U.S. military veterans: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 217, 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.03.071
Siegel, A., & Lahav, Y. (2022). Emotion regulation and distress during the COVID-19 pandemic: The role of childhood abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(17-18), NP16302–NP16326. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211021968
Sifneos, P. E. (1973). The prevalence of "alexithymic" characteristics in psychosomatic patients. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 22(2-6), 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1159/000286529
Simbi, C., Zhang, Y., & Wang, Z. (2020). Early parental loss in childhood and depression in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis of case-controlled studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 260, 272–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.07.087
Sousa, C., Herrenkohl, T. I., Moylan, C. A., Tajima, E. A., Klika, J. B., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Russo, M. J. (2011). Longitudinal study on the effects of child abuse and children's exposure to domestic violence, parent-child attachments, and antisocial behavior in adolescence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(1), 111–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260510362883
Southwick, S. M., Bonanno, G. A., Masten, A. S., Panter-Brick, C., & Yehuda, R. (2014). Resilience definitions, theory, and challenges: Interdisciplinary perspectives. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.25338
Spinazzola, J., Hodgdon, H., Liang, L.-J., Ford, J. D., Layne, C. M., Pynoos, R., Briggs, E. C., Stolbach, B., & Kisiel, C. (2014). Unseen wounds: The contribution of psychological maltreatment to child and adolescent mental health and risk outcomes. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(Suppl 1), S18–S28. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037766
Spitzer, R. L., Kroenke, K., Williams, J. B., & Löwe, B. (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: The GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166(10), 1092–1097. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.166.10.1092
Suls, J., & Martin, R. (2005). The daily life of the garden-variety neurotic: reactivity, stressor exposure, mood spillover, and maladaptive coping. Journal of Personality, 73(6), 1485–1509. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00356.x
Taggart, D., Rouf, K., Hisham, I., Duckworth, L., & Sweeney, A. (2021). Trauma, mental health and the COVID-19 crisis: Are we really all in it together? Journal of Mental Health, 30(4), 401–404. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2021.1875415
Tang, A., Crawford, H., Morales, S., Degnan, K. A., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2020). Infant behavioral inhibition predicts personality and social outcomes three decades later. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117(18), 9800–9807. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1917376117
Tang, W., Hu, T., Yang, L., & Xu, J. (2020). The role of alexithymia in the mental health problems of home-quarantined university students during the COVID-19 pandemic in China. Personality and Individual Differences, 165, 110131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110131
Taylor, G. J., & Bagby, R. M. (2000). An overview of the alexithymia construct. In R. Bar-On & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), The handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory, development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in the workplace (pp. 40–67). Jossey-Bass.
Taylor, G. J., & Bagby, R. M. (2013). Psychoanalysis and empirical research: The example of alexithymia. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 61(1), 99–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003065112474066
Taylor, G. J., Bagby, R. M., & Parker, J. D. (1991). The alexithymia construct: A potential paradigm for psychosomatic medicine. Psychosomatics: Journal of Consultation and Liaison Psychiatry, 32(2), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(91)72086-0
Taylor, G. J., Bagby, R. M., & Parker, J. D. (1999). Disorders of affect regulation: Alexithymia in medical and psychiatric illness. Cambridge University Press.
Toth, S. L., & Cicchetti, D. (2013). A developmental psychopathology perspective on child maltreatment. Introduction. Child Maltreatment, 18(3), 135–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559513500380
Valiente, C., Contreras, A., Peinado, V., Trucharte, A., Martínez, A. P., & Vázquez, C. (2021). Psychological adjustment in Spain during the COVID-19 pandemic: Positive and negative mental health outcomes in the general population. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 24, e8. https://doi.org/10.1017/SJP.2021.7
Veronese, G., Mahamid, F. A., & Bdier, D. (2022). Subjective well-being, sense of coherence, and posttraumatic growth mediate the association between COVID-19 stress, trauma, and burnout among Palestinian health-care providers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 92(3), 291–301. https://doi.org/10.1037/ort0000606
Verster, J. C., Sandalova, E., Garssen, J., & Bruce, G. (2021). The use of single-item ratings versus traditional multiple-item questionnaires to assess mood and health. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 11(1), 183–198. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe11010015
Wang, Y., Kala, M. P., & Jafar, T. H. (2020). Factors associated with psychological distress during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on the predominantly general population: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 15(12), Article e0244630. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0244630
Wanous, J. P., Reichers, A. E., & Hudy, M. J. (1997). Overall job satisfaction: how good are single-item measures?. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(2), 247–252. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.82.2.247
Weissman, D. G., Nook, E. C., Dews, A. A., Miller, A. B., Lambert, H. K., Sasse, S. F., Somerville, L. H., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2020). Low emotional awareness as a transdiagnostic mechanism underlying psychopathology in adolescence. Clinical Psychological Science, 8(6), 971–988. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702620923649
Werner, E. E., & Smith. R. S. (1977). Kauai's children come of age. University Press of Hawaii.
White, L. K., Gur, R. C., & Gur, R. E. (2020). Resilience, COVID-19-related stress, anxiety and depression during the pandemic in a large population enriched for healthcare providers. Translational Psychiatry, 10(1), 291. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-00982-4
Windle, G., Bennett, K. M., & Noyes, J. (2011). A methodological review of resilience measurement scales. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 9, 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-9-8
World Health Organization. (2022, March 2). COVID-19 pandemic triggers 25% increase in prevalence of anxiety and depression worldwide. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news/item/02-03-2022-covid-19-pandemic-triggers-25-increase-in-prevalence-of-anxiety-and-depression-worldwide
World Health Organization. (2024, March 20). Call for urgent agreement on international deal to prepare for and prevent future pandemics. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news/item/20-03-2024-call-for-urgent-agreement-on-international-deal-to-prepare-for-and-prevent-future-pandemics
Xia, J., Zhu, L., Huang, H., Fan, P., Zhou, M., Cai, X. L., & He, H. (2023). Relationships between childhood trauma and mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: A network analysis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 14, 1251473. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1251473
