test A qualitative social representations study of conspiracy theories in Greece|Psychology: the Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society

A qualitative social representations study of conspiracy theories in Greece

Manuscript
Published: Oct 2, 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.12681/psy_hps.41950
Keywords:
conspiracy theories, social representations, crisis, qualitative, IRaMuTeQ
Antonis Dimakis
Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-2246-5295
Artemis Μ. Griva
Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences, Neapolis University
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9065-3958
Alexandra Hantzi
Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences
Xenia Chryssochoou
Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-2246-5295
Abstract

This qualitative study aims to examine conspiracy theories (CTs) circulating on the internet in Greece during times of crisis (2010-2020). Informed by a social representations approach, we examined the organization of the CTs content, the construction of intergroup conflicts and dichotomies involved, and the factors that organize the representational field. A lexicometrical analysis using the IraMuTeQ software was conducted on a corpus of 140 texts found online. A Descending Hierarchical Analysis revealed four classes of CTs, named a) Conspiracies of ruling national elites against the Greek nation b) New World Order against People, c) Science Vs People: denying climate change as human activity outcome, and d) Attacking the “essence” of individuals: their body and identity. The former two classesdescribed intergroup conflicts relating to economic, political, and global power, whereby people are opposed to national and supranational elites. The latter two classes tapped conspiracies against human beings in terms of biopolitics or climate change, whereby people are opposed to scientists. Finally, a Correspondence Analysis revealed two factors structuring the representational field: a) A principle separating conspiracies referring to intergroup conflict Vs conspiracies referring to biopolitics and climate change and b) a principle separating two types of intergroup conflict: within the nation and globally. Results are discussed in relation to SRT and the way CTs contribute to social meaning-making in times of crisis.

Article Details
  • Section
  • RESEARCH PAPERS
Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

The journal PSYCHOLOGY adopts a Platinum open-access policy. Submission, processing or publication costs are waived by the Hellenic Psychological Society. Papers published in the journal PSYCHOLOGY are licensed under a 'Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International' licence. The authors reserve the copyright of their work and grant the journal the right of its first publication. Third-party licensees are allowed to use the published paper immediately after publication as they wish, provided they retain the defined by the license copyright formalities, regarding the reference to its author(s) and its initial publication in the journal PSYCHOLOGY. Moreover, any adjusted work should be shared under the same reuse rights, so with the same CC license.

Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Bar-Tal, D., & Hammack, P. L. (2012). Conflict, delegitimization, and violence. In L. R. Tropp (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of intergroup conflict (pp. 29–52). Oxford University Press.
Barkun, M. (2006). A culture of conspiracy: Apocalyptic visions in contemporary America, in the series. University of California Press.
Bartlett, J., & Miller, C. (2010). The power of unreason: Conspiracy theories, extremism and counter-terrorism. Demos.
Bergmann, E. (2018). Conspiracy and populism: The politics of misinformation. Palgrave-McMillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90359-0
Bronner, G. (2020). Why are conspiracy theories doing so well? The case of Charlie Hebdo. Diogenes, https://doi.org/10.1177/0392192120924532.
Bronner, S. E. (2019). A rumor about the Jews: Conspiracy, anti-Semitism, and the protocols of Zion. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95396-0
Butter, M. (2020). Conspiracy Theories in Films and Television Shows. In M. Butter & P. Knight (Eds.), Routledge handbook of Conspiracy Theories (pp. 457-468). Routledge.
Byford, J., (2011). Conspiracy theories: A critical introduction. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230349216
Camargo, B. V., & Justo, A. M. (2013). Tutorial para uso do software de análise textual IRAMUTEQ [Tutorial for the use of the IRAMUTEQ textual analysis software] (1-18). Universidade Federal de Santa
Catarina, Laboratório de Psicologia Social da Comunicação e Cognição – LACCOS. http://www.iramuteq.org/documentation/fichiers/tutoriel-en-portugais
Chryssochoou, X. (2018). ‘Betrayed Believers’: The target of influence of extreme right-wing minorities. International Review of Social Psychology, 31(1). http://doi.org/10.5334/irsp.38
Coleman, M., & Grove, K. (2009). Biopolitics, biopower, and the return of sovereignty. Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 27(3), 489-507. https://doi.org/10.1068%2Fd3508
Debrix, F., & Barder, A. D. (2009). Nothing to fear but fear: Governmentality and the biopolitical production of terror. International Political Sociology, 3(4), 398-413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-5687.2009.00083.x
Doise, W. (1990). Les Représentations sociales. In R. Guiglione, C. Bonner, & J. F. Richard (Eds). Traité de Psychologie Cognitive. Dunod.
Doise, W., Clemence, A. and Lorenzi-Cioldi, F. (1992). Représentations sociales et analyses de données. Presses Universitaires de Grenoble.
Douglas, K. M., Uscinski, J. E., Sutton, R. M., Cichocka, A., Nefes, T., Ang, C. S., & Deravi, F. (2019). Understanding Conspiracy Theories. Political Psychology, 40, 3-35. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12568
Franks, B., Bangerter, A., & Bauer, M. (2013). Conspiracy theories as quasi-religious mentality: an integrated account from cognitive science, social representations theory, and frame theory. Frontiers in psychology, 4, 424. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00424
Franks, B., Bangerter, A., Bauer, M. W., Hall, M., & Noort, M. C. (2017). Beyond “monologicality”? Exploring conspiracist worldviews. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 861. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00861
Hogg, M. A. (2021). Uncertain self in a changing world: A foundation for radicalization, populism, and autocratic leadership. European Review of Social Psychology, 32(2), 235-268. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463283.2020.1827628
Hogg, M. A. (2014). From uncertainty to extremism: Social categorization and identity processes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), 338–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414540168
Imhoff, R., & Bruder, M. (2014). Speaking (un-) truth to power: Conspiracy mentality as a generalized political attitude. European Journal of Personality, 28(1), 25–43. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.1930
Imhoff, R., Zimmer, F., Klein, O., Antônio, J. H., Babinska, M., Bangerter, A., Bilewicz, M., Blanuša, N., Bovan, K., Bužarovska, R., Cichocka, A., Delouvée, S., Douglas, K. M., Dyrrendal, A., Etienne, T., Gionco, B., Graf, S., Gualda, E., Hirschberger, G., … van Prooijen, J.-W. (2022). Conspiracy mentality and political orientation across 26 countries. Nature Human Behaviour, 6(3), 392–403. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-021-01258-7
Jolley, D., & Douglas, K. M. (2014). The effects of anti-vaccine conspiracy theories on vaccination intentions. PLoS ONE 9(2): e89177. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089177
Klein, O., & Nera, K. (2020). Social psychology of conspiracy theories. In M. Butter & P. Knight (Eds.), Routledge handbook of conspiracy theories (pp. 121-134). Routledge.
Leman, P. J., & Cinnirella, M. (2007). A major event has a major cause: Evidence for the role of heuristics in reasoning about conspiracy theories. Social Psychological Review, 9(2), 18-28.
Lorenzi-Cioldi, F. & Clemence, A. (2001). Group Processes and the construction of Social Representations. In: M. A. Hogg & S. Tindalle (Eds.), Blackwell Handbook of Social Psychology: Group Processes (pp. 311-333). Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470998458.ch13
Mahl, D., Schäfer, M. S., & Zeng, J. (2022). Conspiracy theories in online environments: An interdisciplinary literature review and agenda for future research. New Media & Society, 25(7), 1781-1801. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221075759
Mari, S., Volpato, C., Papastamou, S., Chryssochoou, X. & Prodromitis, G. (2017). How political orientation and vulnerability shape representations of the economic crisis in Greece and Italy. International Review of Social Psychology, 30(1), 52-67. https://doi.org/10.5334/irsp.95
Meuer, M., Oeberst, A., & Imhoff, R. (2021). Believe it or not – No support for an effect of providing explanatory or threat-related information on conspiracy theories’ credibility. International Review of Social Psychology, 34(1), 26, 1–13. https://doi. org/10.5334/irsp.587
Moscovici, S. (2006/2020). Reflections on the popularity of ‘conspiracy mentalities’. International Review of Social Psychology, 33(1), 9. http://doi.org/10.5334/irsp.432
Moscovici, S. (1976/2008). La Psychanalyse son Image et son Public [Psychoanalysis, its image and its public]. Presses Universitaires de France.
Moscovici, S. (1988). Notes towards a description of social representations. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18(3), 211-250. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420180303
Moscovici, S. (1987). The conspiracy mentality. In C.F. Graumann & S. Moscovici (Eds.), Changing conceptions of conspiracy (pp. 151-169). Springer-Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4618-3
Mudde, C., & Kaltwasser, C. R. (2017). Populism: A very short introduction. Epikentro.
Nera, K., Wagner‐Egger, P., Bertin, P. & Klein, O. (2021). A power‐challenging theory of society, or a conservative mindset? Upward and downward conspiracy theories as ideologically distinct beliefs. European Journal of Social Psychology, 51(4-5), 740-757. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2769
Nimetz, M. (2020). The Macedonian “name” dispute: The Macedonian question—resolved? Nationalities Papers, 48(2), 205-214. https://doi.org/10.1017/nps.2020.10
Petkanopoulou, K., Chryssochoou, X., Zacharia, M., & Pavlopoulos, V. (2021). Collective disadvantage in the context of socioeconomic crisis in Greece: The role of system-directed anger, politicians-directed anger and hope in normative and non-normative collective action participation. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, early view https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2580
Ratinaud, P. (2018). The Brilliant friend(s) of Elena Ferrante: A lexicometrical comparison between Elena Ferrante’s books and 39 contemporary Italian writers. In Α. Tuzzi & M.A. Cortelazzo (Eds.), Drawing Elena Ferrante's profile: Workshop proceedings, Padova, 7 September 2017 (pp. 97-110). Padova University Press.
Ratinaud, P. (2009). IRaMuTeQ: Interface de R pour les Analyses Multidimensionnelles de Textes et de Questionnaires. http://www. iramuteq. org.
Reicher, S. (2004). The context of social identity: Domination, resistance, and change. Political psychology, 25(6), 921-945. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00403.x
Reinert, M. (1986). Un logiciel d’analyse lexicale: Alceste [Lexical analysis software: Alceste]. Les Cahiers d’Analyse des Donnees, 11(4), 471–481. http://www.numdam.org/item/CAD_1986__11_4_471_0/
Rizzoli, V., Castro, P., Tuzzi, A., & Contarello, A. (2019). Probing the history of social psychology, exploring diversity and views of the social: Publication trends in the European Journal of Social Psychology from 1971 to 2016. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49(4), 671-687. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2528
Safford, T., Hamilton, L. C., & Whitmore, E. (2017). The Zika virus threat: How concerns about scientists may undermine efforts to combat the pandemic. Regional Issue Brief, 49. Carsey School of Public Policy, University of New Hampshire. https://doi.org/10.34051/p/2020.288
Sammut, G., Andreouli, E., Gaskell, G. & Valsiner, J. (2015). Social representations: a revolutionary paradigm? In G. Sammut, E. Andreouli, G. Gaskell & J. Valsiner (Eds.), Cambridge Handbook of Social Representations (pp. 3-11). Cambridge University Press.
Sapountzis, A., & Condor, S. (2013). Conspiracy accounts as intergroup theories: Challenging dominant understandings of social power and political legitimacy. Political Psychology, 34, 731–752. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12015
Sharma, M., Yadav, K., Yadav, N., & Ferdinand, K. C. (2017). Zika virus pandemic: analysis of Facebook as a social media health information platform. American Journal of Infection Control, 45(3), 301–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2016.08.022
Schulz, A., Müller, P., Schemer, C., Wirz, D.S., Wettstein, M., Wirth, W., (2018). Measuring populist attitudes on three dimensions, International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 30, (2), 316–326. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edw037
Simon, B., & Klandermans, B. (2001). Politicized collective identity: A social psychological analysis. American psychologist, 56(4), 319. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.4.319
Staerklé, C. (2013). Political lay thinking as representations of social order. In T. Magioglou (Ed.), Culture and political psychology: A societal perspective. Advances in cultural psychology: Vol.7, Constructing human development (pp. 49‐74). Information Age Publishing.
Sunstein, C. R. (2023). Conspiracy theory. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 46, 1–84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X23001097
Taguieff, P. A. (2015). Conspirational thought and “theories of complot”. A critical introduction. Epikentro.
Tang, W., Hu, J., Zhang, H., Wu, P., & He, H. (2015). Kappa coefficient: a popular measure of rater agreement. Shanghai archives of psychiatry, 27(1), 62–67. https://doi.org/10.11919/j.issn.1002-0829.215010
Uscinski, J. E. (2018). The study of conspiracy theories. Argumenta, 2, 1-13. 10.23811/53.arg2017.usc
Uscinski, J. E., & Parent, J. M. (2014). American conspiracy theories. Oxford University Press.
van Prooijen, J-W. (2018). The psychology of conspiracy theories. Routledge.
van Prooijen, J-W., & Douglas, K. M. (2018). Belief in conspiracy theories: Basic principles of an emerging research domain. European Journal of Social Psychology, 48(7), 897-908. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2530
van Prooijen, J-W., & Douglas, K. M. (2017). Conspiracy theories as part of history: The role of societal crisis situations. Memory studies, 10(3), 323-333. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1750698017701615
van Prooijen, J-W., & Jostmann, N. B. (2013). Belief in conspiracy theories: The influence of uncertainty and perceived morality. European Journal of Social Psychology, 43(1), 109-115. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.1922
Wagner-Egger, P., Bangerter, A., Gilles, I., Green, E. G. T., Rigaud, D., Krings, F., Staerklé, C., & Clémence, A. (2011). Discourse about collectives at the outbreak of the H1N1 epidemic: Saviors, villains, and victims. Public Understanding of Science, 20, 461-476. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963662510393605
Wagner-Egger, P. (2022). The noises of conspiracy: Psychology of beliefs in conspiracy theories. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/fv52eWood, M.J. & Douglas, K.M. (2015). Online communication as a window to conspiracist worldviews. Frontiers in Psychology 6,1–8.
Wood, M. J., & Douglas, K. M. (2013). “What about building 7?” A social psychological study of online discussion of 9/11 conspiracy theories. Frontiers in Psychology, 4(409). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00409
Waisbord, S. (2018). Truth is what happens to news. Journalism Studies 19(13), 1866–1878.
Most read articles by the same author(s)