Psychosocial and learning adjustment of adolescents during distance and face-to-face teaching
Published:
Απρ 21, 2026
Keywords:
distance and face-to-face education, adolescents, school engagement, learning strategies, psychosocial adjustment
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to investigate middle school students’ perceptions of their psychosocial and learning adjustment during face-to-face teaching one year after the lifting of school closures due to the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as retrospectively during distance teaching throughout the period of school suspension. For this purpose, self-report questionnaires were administered to 282 students attending the 8th and 9th grades from schools in two urban centres, Athens and Thessaloniki. Participants evaluated their adjustment both in the face-to-face and, retrospectively, in the distance teaching context. The results revealed significant differences in students’ psychosocial and learning adjustment between the two educational conditions. Specifically, higher levels of “conduct problems,” “hyperactivity/inattention,” and “surface learning strategies” were recorded during distance teaching, whereas “prosocial behaviour” and all indicators of school engagement were significantly lower compared to face-to-face teaching. Structural equation modelling showed that learning strategies mediated the relationship between psychosocial factors and “cognitive engagement,” fully in the case of “prosocial behaviour” and partially in the case of “conduct problems” and “ADHD.” In addition, during distance teaching, “prosocial behaviour” did not lead directly to increased “behavioural engagement,” but only indirectly, through its negative association with “surface learning strategies.” The significance of the findings for supporting students’ learning and psychosocial adjustment, particularly during periods of crisis, is discussed considering the existing literature.
[1] Για λόγους οικονομίας χώρου και ευχερέστερης ανάγνωσης το αρσενικό γραμματικό γένος (π.χ. μαθητής) χρησιμοποιείται ως συμπεριληπτικός για τη δήλωση του φύλου.
Article Details
- How to Cite
-
Polychroni, F., Adamidou, A., Papaspyropoulou, A., & Kakouris, V. (2026). Psychosocial and learning adjustment of adolescents during distance and face-to-face teaching. Psychology: The Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society, 31(1), 206–228. https://doi.org/10.12681/psy_hps.45302
- Section
- SPECIAL SECTION
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
The journal PSYCHOLOGY adopts a Platinum open-access policy. Submission, processing or publication costs are waived by the Hellenic Psychological Society. Papers published in the journal PSYCHOLOGY are licensed under a 'Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International' licence. The authors reserve the copyright of their work and grant the journal the right of its first publication. Third-party licensees are allowed to use the published paper immediately after publication as they wish, provided they retain the defined by the license copyright formalities, regarding the reference to its author(s) and its initial publication in the journal PSYCHOLOGY. Moreover, any adjusted work should be shared under the same reuse rights, so with the same CC license.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Allen, K., Kern, M. L., Vella-Brodrick, D., Hattie, J., & Waters, L. (2018). What schools need to know about fostering school belonging: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 30, 1-34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9389-8
Antoniou, A. S., Palivakou, E., & Polychroni, F. (2021). Resilience in children and adolescents during the Covid-19 pandemic. Developmental and Adolescent Health, 1(4), 34-41. https://doi.org/10.54088/065hm
APA (2019). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.).
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238-246. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238
Bray, A., Banks, J., Devitt, A., & Ní Chorcora, E. (2021). Connection before content: Using multiple perspectives to examine student engagement during Covid-19 school closures in Ireland. Irish Educational Studies, 40(2), 431-441. https://doi.org/10.1080/03323315.2021.1917444
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. Sociological Methods & Research, 21(2), 230-258. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124192021002005
Γωνίδα, Ε. Ν., & Λεονταρή, Α. (2012). Χρήση στρατηγικών. Στο Σ. Σταλίκας, Σ. Τριλίβα, & Π. Ρούσση (Επιμ.), Τα ψυχομετρικά εργαλεία στην Ελλάδα. Ελληνικά Γράμματα.
Caballero-Julia, D., Martín-Lucas, J. & Andrade-Silva, L. A. (2024) Unpacking the relationship between screen use and educational outcomes in childhood: A systematic literature review. Computers & Education, 215, e105049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105049.
Clark, A. E., Nong, H., Zhu, H., & Zhu, R. (2021). Compensating for academic loss: Online learning and student performance during the COVID-19 pandemic. China Economic Review, 68, e101629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2021.101629
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2017). Research Methods in Education (8th ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315456539
Cortés-Albornoz, M. C., Ramírez-Guerrero, S., García-Guáqueta, D. P., Vélez-Van-Meerbeke, A., & Talero-Gutiérrez, C. (2023). Effects of remote learning during COVID-19 lockdown on children’s learning abilities and school performance: A systematic review. International Journal of Educational Development, 101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102835
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506386704
Creswell, C., Shum, A., Pearcey, S., Skripkauskaite, S., Patalay, P., & Waite, P. (2021). Young people's mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 5(8), 535-537. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(21)00177-2
Dalimunthe, H. H. B., Sutisna, A., Zakiah, L., & Handayani, S. (2021). Transformative science education: Empowering self-regulated learners during pandemic COVID-19. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2331(1). https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0041666
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2011). The Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.). Sage.
Di Pietro, G. (2023). The impact of Covid-19 on student achievement: Evidence from a recent meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 39, 100530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100530
Duan, L., Shao, X., Wang, Y., Huang, Y., Miao, J., Yang, X., & Zhu, G. (2020). An investigation of mental health status of children and adolescents in China during the outbreak of COVID-19. Journal of Affective Disorders, 275, 112-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.06.029
Ellis, W. E., Dumas, T. M., & Forbes, L. M. (2020). Physically isolated but socially connected: Psychological adjustment and stress among adolescents during the initial COVID-19 crisis. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 52 (3), 177-188. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/cbs0000215
Ezpeleta, L., Navarro, J. B., de La Osa, N., Trepat, E., & Penelo, E. (2020). Life conditions during COVID-19 lockdown and mental health in Spanish adolescents. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(19), 7327. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17197327
Forsler, I., & Guyard, C. (2025) Screens, teens and their brains. Discourses about digital media, learning and cognitive development in popular science neuroeducation. Learning, Media and Technology, 50(2), 191-204. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2023.2230893
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of educational research, 74(1), 59-109. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059
Fredricks, J. A., Parr, A. K., Amemiya, J. L., Wang, M. T., & Brauer, S. (2019). What matters for urban adolescents’ engagement and disengagement in school: A mixed-methods study. Journal of Adolescent Research, 34(5), 491-527. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558419830638
Ghosh, D. (2021). The impact of the covid-19 pandemic on children and adolescents mental health: A literature review. Indonesian Journal of Global Health Research, 3(3), 281-288. https://doi.org/10.37287/ijghr.v3i3.483
Hatzichristou, C., Georgakakou-Koutsonikou, N., Lianos, P., Lampropoulou, A., & Yfanti, T. (2021). Assessing school community needs during the initial outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic: Teacher, parent and student perceptions. School Psychology International, 42(6), 590–615. https://doi.org/10.1177/01430343211041697
Hatzichristou, C., Lianos, P., Lampropoulou, A., Georgakou-Koutsonikou, N., Yfanti, T., & Georgouleas, G. (2022). Μultilevel intervention to support school/educational communities in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic: Empirical findings and interventions. Psychology: The Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society, 26(3), 111–125. https://doi.org/10.12681/psy_hps.28855
Hawes, M. T., Szenczy, A. K., Olino, T. M., Nelson, B. D., & Klein, D. N. (2021). Trajectories of depression, anxiety and pandemic experiences; A longitudinal study of youth in New York during the Spring-Summer of 2020. Psychiatry Research, 298, e113778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113778
Helm, A., & McDermott, J. (2022). Impact of tablet use on young children’s inhibitory control and error monitoring. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 222, e105446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105446.
Hwang, G. J., Wang, S. Y., & Lai, C. L. (2021). Effects of a social regulation-based online learning framework on students’ learning achievements and behaviors in mathematics. Computers & Education, 160, e 104031. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104031
Jones, N., Baird, S., Abu Hamad, B., Bhutta, Z. A., Oakley, E., Shah, M., Sajdi, J., & Yount, K. M. (2022). Compounding inequalities: Adolescent psychosocial wellbeing and resilience among refugee and host communities in Jordan during the COVID-19 pandemic. PLOS ONE, 17(2), e0261773. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0261773
Koh, J. H. L., & Daniel, B. K. (2022). Shifting online during COVID-19: A systematic review of teaching and learning strategies and their outcomes. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 19(1), e56. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00361-7
Lam, S. F., Jimerson, S., Shin, H., Cefai, C., Veiga, F. H., Hatzichristou, C., Polychroni, F., Kikas, E., Wong, B. P. H., Stanculescu, E., Basnett, J., Duck, R., Farrell, P., Liu, Y., Negovan, V., Nelson, B., Yang, H., & Zollneritsch, J. (2015). Cultural universality and specificity of student engagement in school: The results of an international study from 12 countries. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 86(1), 137-153. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12079
Lam, S. F., Jimerson, S., Wong, B. P. H., Kikas, E., Shin, H., Veiga, F. H., Hatzichristou, C., Polychroni, F., Cefai, C., Negovan, V., Stanculescu, E., Yang, H., Liu, Y., Basnett, J., Duck, R., Farrell, P., Nelson, B., & Zollneritsch, J. (2014). Understanding and measuring student engagement in school: The results of an international study from 12 countries. School Psychology Quarterly, 29(2), 213–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000057
Lampropoulou, A., Georgakakou-Koutsonikou, N., Hatzichristou, C., & Roussos, P. (2023). Student adaptation, loneliness and mental health profiles during the second wave of the pandemic COVID-19. Education Sciences, 13(7), 644. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13070644
Langgar, D., Bani, M., & Ly, P. (2023). The study of learning motivation analysis during COVID-19 online learning and post COVID-19 offline learning. International Journal of Social Service and Research, 3(3), 656-662. https://doi.org/10.46799/ijssr.v3i3.311
World Health Organization. (2025). World mental health today: Latest data. World Health Organization. https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/382343
Magklara, K., Lazaratou, H., Barbouni, A., Poulas, K., & Farsalinos, K. (2023). The impact of COVID‐19 lockdown on children's and adolescents' mental health in Greece. Children & Society, 37(2), 469-484. https://doi.org/10.1111/chso.12605
Maiya, S., Dotterer, A. M., & Whiteman, S. D. (2021). Longitudinal changes in adolescents’ school bonding during the COVID‐19 pandemic: Individual, parenting, and family correlates. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 31(3), 808-819. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12653
Mali, D., & Lim, H. (2021). How do students perceive face-to-face/blended learning as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic?. The International Journal of Management Education, 19(3), e10055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100552
Marsh, H. W., & Hocevar, D. (1985). Application of confirmatory factor analysis to the study of self-concept: First-and higher order factor models and their invariance across groups. Psychological Bulletin, 97(3), 562-582. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.97.3.562
Marton, F (1975) ‘On non-verbatim learning – 1: Level of processing and level of outcome’. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 16, 273–279. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.1975.tb00193.x
Mohan, G., McCoy, S., Carroll, E., Mihut, G., Lyons, S., & Mac Domhnaill, C. (2020). Learning for all? Second-level education in Ireland during COVID-19 (Research Series No. 92). Economic and Social Research Institute. https://doi.org/10.26504/sustat92
Moore, M. G., & Kearsley, G. (2012). Distance education: A systems view of online learning. Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Μπίμπου-Νάκου, Ι., Κιοσέογλου, Γ., και Στογιαννίδου, Α. (2001). Δυνατότητες και δυσκολίες παιδιών σχολικής ηλικίας στο οικογενειακό και σχολικό πλαίσιο. Ψυχολογία, 8, 506-525.
Μπίμπου-Νάκου, Ι., Στογιαννίδου, Α., Κιοσέογλου, Γ., & Παπαγεωργίου, Β. (2002). Ερωτηματολόγιο δυνατοτήτων και δυσκολιών (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire). Στο Α. Σταλίκας, Σ. Τριλίβα, & Π. Ρούσση (Επιμ.), Τα ψυχομετρικά εργαλεία στην Ελλάδα (σσ. 411–413). Ελληνικά Γράμματα.
Nearchou, F., Flinn, C., Niland, R., Subramaniam, S. S., & Hennessy, E. (2020). Exploring the impact of COVID-19 on mental health outcomes in children and adolescents: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(22), e8479. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17228479
Pampati, S., Verlenden, J. V., Cree, R. A., Hertz, M., Bitsko, R. H., Spencer, P., Moore, S., Michael, S. L., & Dittus, P. J. (2023). Children’s mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic: A population-based cohort study in the United States. Annals of Epidemiology, 88, 7-14.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2023.10.005
Pavlov, G., Maydeu-Olivares, A., & Shi, D. (2020). Using the Standardized Root Mean Squared Residual (SRMR) to assess exact fit in Structural Equation Models. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 81(1), 110-130. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164420926231
Polychroni, F., Antoniou, A.-S., & Katsiki, A. (in press). Difficulties with distance learning and motivation, test anxiety and academic resilience of higher education students with dyslexia during COVID-19. Behavioral Sciences.
Πολυχρόνη, Φ., Αντωνίου, Α.-Σ. & Κοτρώνη, Χ. (2012). Στρατηγικές κατανόησης κειμένου και προσέγγιση στη μάθηση μαθητών Γυμνασίου με μαθησιακές δυσκολίες. Παιδαγωγική Επιθεώρηση, 53, 48-62.
Πολυχρόνη, Φ., Αντωνίου, Α.-Σ., & Καμπυλαυκά, Χ. (2013). Συμπεριφορές αυτοϋπονόμευσης, στρατηγικές κατανόησης κειμένου και προσέγγιση στη μάθηση μαθητών γυμνασίου με μαθησιακές δυσκολίες. Ελληνική Επιθεώρηση Ειδικής Αγωγής, 4, 17–39.
Πολυχρόνη, Φ., Αντωνίου, Α.-Σ., Παλιβάκου, Ε., Κόφα, Ο. (2021). Δυσκολίες με την εξ αποστάσεως εκπαίδευση σε φοιτητές κατά την περίοδο της πανδημίας και η σχέση με τα κίνητρα, τις στρατηγικές μάθησης και το άγχος εξετάσεων. Επιθεώρηση Συμβουλευτικής και Προσανατολισμού, 124-125, 119-132.
Raviv, T., Warren, C. M., Washburn, J. J., Kanaley, M. K., Eihentale, L., Goldenthal, H. J., Russo, J., Martin, C. P., Lombard, L. S., Tully, J., Fox, K., & Gupta, R. (2021). Caregiver perceptions of children’s psychological well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA Network Open, 4(4), e2111103. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.11103
Roe, A., Blikstad-Balas, M., & Dalland, C. P. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 and homeschooling on students' engagement with physical activity. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 2, e589227. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2020.589227
Salmela‐Aro, K., Upadyaya, K., Vinni‐Laakso, J., & Hietajärvi, L. (2021). Adolescents' longitudinal school engagement and burnout before and during COVID‐19—The role of socio‐emotional skills. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 31(3), 796-807. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12654
Spitzer, M. W. H., Gutsfeld, R., Wirzberger, M., & Moeller, K. (2021). Evaluating students’ engagement with an online learning environment during and after COVID-19 related school closures: A survival analysis approach. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 25, e100168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2021.100168
Stavridou, A., Stergiopoulou, A. A., Panagouli, E., Mesiris, G., Thirios, A., Mougiakos, T., Troupis, T., Psaltopoulou, T., Tsolia, M., Sergentanis, T. N., & Tsitsika, A. (2020). Psychosocial consequences of COVID‐19 in children, adolescents and young adults: A systematic review. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 74(11), 615. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.13134
Torrington, J., Bower, M., & Burns, E. C. (2023). How remote learning impacted elementary students’ online self-regulation for learning: A COVID-19 natural experiment. Education and Information Technologies, 28, 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12352-w
Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 38(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02291170
Unda-López, A., Osejo-Taco, G., Vinueza-Cabezas, A., Paz, C., & Hidalgo-Andrade, P. (2022). Procrastination during the COVID-19 pandemic: A scoping review. Behavioral Sciences, 12(2), 38. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs12020038
van der Velde, M., Sense, F., Spijkers, R., Meeter, M., & van Rijn, H. (2021). Lockdown learning: Changes in online foreign-language study activity and performance of Dutch secondary school students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Education, 6, e712987. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.712987
Waite, P., Pearcey, S., Shum, A., Raw, J. A., Patalay, P., & Creswell, C. (2021). How did the mental health symptoms of children and adolescents change over early lockdown during the COVID‐19 pandemic in the UK?. JCPP Advances, 1(1), e12009. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcv2.12009
Wang, M. T., & Holcombe, R. (2010). Adolescents’ perceptions of school environment, engagement, and academic achievement in middle school. American Educational Research Journal, 47(3), 633-662. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831209361209
Wang, M. T., & Dishion, T. J. (2012). The trajectories of adolescents’ perceptions of school climate, deviant peer affiliation, and behavioral problems during the middle school years. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 40-53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00763.x
Wang, M. T., & Eccles, J. S. (2012). Social support matters: Longitudinal effects of social support on three dimensions of school engagement from middle to high school. Child Development, 83(3), 877-895. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01745.x
Wang, M. T., & Hofkens, T. L. (2020). Beyond classroom academics: A school-wide and multi-contextual perspective on student engagement in school. Adolescent Research Review, 5, 419-433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40894-019-00115-z
Wang, L., Zhang, Y., Chen, L., Wang, J., Jia, F., Li, F., ... & Li, T. (2021). Psychosocial and behavioral problems of children and adolescents in the early stage of reopening schools after the COVID-19 pandemic: A national cross-sectional study in China. Translational Psychiatry, 11(1), e342. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-021-01462-z
Yang, S., Saïd, M., Peyre, H., Ramus, F., Taine, M., Law, E. C., Dufourg, M. N., Heude, B., Charles, M. A., Bernard, J.Y. (2024). Associations of screen use with cognitive development in early childhood: The ELFE birth cohort. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 65(5), 680–693. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13887
Ye, Y., Wang, C., Zhu, Q., He, M., Havawala, M., Bai, X., & Wang, T. (2022). Parenting and teacher–student relationship as protective factors for Chinese adolescent adjustment during COVID-19. School Psychology Review, 51(2), 187-205. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2021.1897478
Yu, Z. (2022). Sustaining student roles, digital literacy, learning achievements, and motivation in online learning environments during the COVID-19 pandemic. Sustainability, 14(8), e4388. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084388
Zaccoletti, S., Camacho, A., Correia, N., Aguiar, C., Mason, L., Alves, R. A., & Daniel, J. R. (2020). Parents’ perceptions of student academic motivation during the COVID-19 lockdown: A cross-country comparison. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 592670. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.592670
Zhou, S. J., Zhang, L. G., Wang, L. L., Guo, Z. C., Wang, J. Q., Chen, J. C., Liu, M., Chen, X., & Chen, J. X. (2020). Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of psychological health problems in Chinese adolescents during the outbreak of COVID-19. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(6), 749–758. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01541-4
Zhu, Y., Xu, S., Wang, W., Zhang, L., Liu, D., Liu, Z., & Xu, Y. (2022). The impact of online and offline learning motivation on learning performance: The mediating role of positive academic emotion. Education and Information Technologies, 27(7), 8921-8938. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-10961-5
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13–39). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50031-7
