From Medieval Aristotelianism to Modern Philosophies of Science: Key Stages in the Development of Scientific Thought
Abstract
This essay examines four key periods in the evolution of scientific thought, from the medieval period to contemporary philosophy. It begins with the era of interdependence and tensions between Aristotelianism and theology (from Latin Europe of the Middle Ages to the 14th century). It continues with the period of the scientific revolution marked by Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton (16th and 17th centuries). It then examines modern philosophy through the contrast between rationalism and empiricism (ca. 1650–1780) and concludes with contemporary philosophies of science, from logical positivism to the theories of Kuhn and Feyerabend (ca. 1920–1980). During the Middle Ages, the conflict and attempts at reconciliation between Aristotelianism and theology were articulated both within the University and within the Church, leading to the Condemnation of 1277 and to the subsequent search for new theoretical perspectives in the 14th century. Copernicus’ cosmology overturned the geocentric system, while Galileo’s empirical confirmation of heliocentrism and Newton’s formulation of a general theory of nature established the new scientific conception of the world. In modern philosophy, the fundamental differences between rationalism and empiricism concern both the sources and methods of knowledge and their limits. Descartes grounded knowledge in reason and innate ideas, whereas Locke and Hume emphasized the role of experience and the uncertainty of human understanding. Finally, logical positivism sought to define science through empirical verification and linguistic precision. At the same time, Kuhn and Feyerabend redefined the relationship between science and its historical and social context, highlighting the significance of change, discontinuity, and methodological pluralism. Overall, the development of science from the medieval period to contemporary philosophy constitutes a history of interdependence and opposition among theology, philosophy, and empirical inquiry, in which each stage of evolution has contributed to reshaping humanity’s understanding of nature, knowledge, and its place in the universe.
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