Ask the audience: Characterization of diving pressure on marine caves using diving operators’ knowledge
Published:
Dec 15, 2025
Keywords:
Marine Caves Local Ecological Knowledge. marine conservation Public Engagement tourism
Abstract
Marine caves are considered biodiversity hotspots and serve as refuge habitats for both endemic and non-endemic species. Due to their low resilience, this habitat is considered vulnerable and is included as a key habitat in the European Union’s (EU) Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC). Recreational diving has been identified as a significant threat to this habitat, causing sediment resuspension, destruction of epibenthic organisms by contact, and the accumulation of exhaled air from divers on the ceiling, which can lead to the death of benthic organisms trapped in the air pockets. Consequently, urgent management measures for recreational diving in this fragile habitat are necessary, particularly since this activity has experienced substantial growth during the last decades, evolving into a form of mass tourism. The development of effective management strategies for marine caves is challenging, astheir exploitation and distribution are poorly known and cannot be estimated using traditional oceanographic mapping techniques applied to other benthic habitats. In this study, we conducted face-to-face, semi-structured questionnaires with dive operators, and used their Local Ecological Knowledge to estimate the spatial distribution of submerged and semi-submerged marine caves affected by recreational diving, the frequency of this activity, and the perception of diving centers regarding the impact of their activity on marine caves of the islands of Majorca and Menorca (Balearic Islands, Spain). Additionally, diving centers were asked to suggest potential measures to mitigate these impacts. Our results indicate that this approach is effective in identifying marine caves affected by recreational diving (a total of 111 marine caves were identified) and in determining key factors regarding the impact of recreational diving (accessibility of the cave and proximity to the diving center). This methodology also reveals that dive operators are generally aware of the reasons for protecting marine caves and the good practices required to protect this habitat, but little effort is made to implement these practices. These findings underline priority areas for intervention and suggest conservation practices to manage recreational diving in marine caves.
Article Details
- How to Cite
-
QUILES-PONS, C., MARESCA, F., R. DE LA BALLINA, N., REAL, E., BAENA-VEGA, I., MUÑOZ, A. M., MORATÓ, M., DÍEZ, S., MALLOL, S., & DÍAZ, D. (2025). Ask the audience: Characterization of diving pressure on marine caves using diving operators’ knowledge. Mediterranean Marine Science, 26(4), 1005–1016. https://doi.org/10.12681/mms.41113
- Section
- Research Article
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g. post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (preferably in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Baker, E.K., Harris, P.T., 2020. “Habitat mapping and marine management,” in Seafloor Geomorphology as Benthic Habitat, Elsevier, p.17-33.
Barker, N.H.L., Roberts, C.M., 2004. Scuba diver behaviour and the management of diving impacts on coral reefs. Biological Conservation, 120, 481-489.
Betti, F., Enrichetti, F., Garetto, C., Merotto, L., Cappanera, V. et al., 2023. Optimization of scuba diving activities in a Mediterranean marine protected area based on benthic vulnerability assessment. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 33, 191-201.
Bianchi, C.N., Gerovasileiou, V., Morri, C., Froglia, C., 2022. Distribution and Ecology of Decapod Crustaceans in Mediterranean Marine Caves: A Review. Diversity, 14, 176.
Bibiloni, M.A., Gili, J.M., 1982. Primera aportación al conocimiento de las cuevas submarinas de la isla de Mallorca. Oecologia Aquatica, 6, 227-234.
Bibiloni, M.A., Uriz, M.J., Ros, J.D., 1998. Faunal affinities of the Sponges (Porifera) of the Balearic Islands with those of other biogeographical areas. Oecologia Aquatica, 11, 123-133.
Blosear, J., Chen, C., Gates, M., Lipsky, A., Longley-Wood, K., 2015. Characterization of Coastal and Marine Recreational Activity in the U. S. Northeast. Ocean Planning in the Northeast, 1, 265.
Bruno, F., Bianco, G., Muzzupappa, M., Barone, S., Razionale, A.V., 2011. Experimentation of structured light and stereo vision for underwater 3D reconstruction. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 66, 508-518.
Busquets, A., Fornós, J., Zafra, F., Lalucat, J., Merino, A., 2014. Microbial communities in a coastal cave: Cova des Pas de Vallgornera (Mallorca, Western Mediterranean). International Journal of Speleology, 43, 205-216.
Bussotti, S., Di Franco, A., Francour, P., Guidetti, P., 2015. Fish Assemblages of Mediterranean Marine Caves. PLoS ONE, 10, e0122632.
Byrnes, T., Buckley, R., Howes, M., Arthur, J.M., 2016. Environmental management of boating related impacts by commercial fishing, sailing and diving tour boat operators in Australia. Journal of Cleaner Production, 111, 383-398.
Casoli, E., Nicoletti, L., Mastrantonio, G., Jona-Lasinio, G., Belluscio, A., et al., 2017. Scuba diving damage on coralligenous builders: Bryozoan species as an indicator of stress. Ecological Indicators, 74, 441-450.
Chevaldonné, P., Lejeusne, C., 2003. Regional warming‐induced species shift in north‐west Mediterranean marine caves. Ecology Letters, 6, 371-379.
Chust, G., Galparsoro, I., Borja, Á., Franco, J., Uriarte, A., 2008. Coastal and estuarine habitat mapping, using LIDAR height and intensity and multi-spectral imagery. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 78, 633-643.
Cogan, C.B., Todd, B.J., Lawton, P., Noji, T.T., 2009. The role of marine habitat mapping in ecosystem-based management. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66, 2033-2042.
Corriero, G., Scalera Liaci, L., Ruggiero, D., Pansini, M., 2000. The Sponge Community of a Semi‐Submerged Mediterranean Cave. Marine Ecology, 21 (1), 85-96.
Dailianis, T., Gerovasileiou, V., Chatzigeorgiou, G., Vernadou, E., Glampedakis, I. et al., 2022. Exploratory baseline survey of cave habitats within a marine protected area in the Aegean Sea. p. 19-24. In: 3rd Mediterranean Symposium on the Conservation of Dark Habitats, Genoa, Italy, 21-22 September 2022. UNEP/MAP – SPA/RAC, Tunis.
Davis, D., Tisdell, C., 1996. Economic Management of Recreational Scuba Diving and the Environment. Journal of Environmental Management, 48 (3), 229-248.
de la Ballina, N.R., Maresca, F., Real, E., Baena-Vega, I., Díez, S. et al. 2025. Signs of northward expansion of the fireworm Hermodice carunculata in the Spanish Western Mediterranean Sea. Mediterranean Marine Science, 26 (3), 515-532.
Dearden, P., Bennett, M., Rollins, R., 2007. Perceptions of Diving Impacts and Implications for Reef Conservation. Coastal Management, 35, 305-317.
Derrien, M., Chevaldonné , P., Pérez, T., 2024. Patterns of benthic diversity in marine underwater caves of the Marseille Region (France, North-Western Mediterranean Sea). Mediterranean Marine Science, 25 (3), 666-681.
Di Camillo, C.G., Turicchia, E., Roveta, C., Quadrini, G., Storari, A. et al., 2025. Towards blue diving: analysis and solutions to prevent scuba diving impact in the Mediterranean sea. Ocean & Coastal Management, 269, 107833.
Di Franco, A., Ferruzza, G., Baiata, P., Chemello, R., Milazzo, M., 2010. Can recreational scuba divers alter natural gross sedimentation rate? A case study from a Mediterranean deep cave. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 67, 871-874.
Di Franco, A., Milazzo, M., Baiata, P., Tomasello, A., Chemello, R., 2009. Scuba diver behaviour and its effects on the biota of a Mediterranean marine protected area. Environmental Conservation, 36, 32-40.
Díaz, J.A., Ordines, F., Massutí, E., Cárdenas, P., 2024. From caves to seamounts: the hidden diversity of tetractinellid sponges from the Balearic Islands, with the description of eight new species. PeerJ, 12, e16584.
Digenis, M., Ragkousis, M., Dimitriadis, C., Katsanevakis, S., Gerovasileiou, V., 2025. Assessing the motile fauna of eastern Mediterranean marine caves. Fishes, 10, 383.
Edney, J., 2017. Human dimensions of wreck diving and management: Case studies from Australia and Micronesia. Tourism in Marine Environments, 12, 169-182.
Encinas, J.A., 2014. Corpus Cavernario Mayoricense. Fundacion Manuel Maria de estudos galegos.
EU, 1992. Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora. Official Journal of the European Communities L 206, 7-50. Garcia-Bustos, V., 2025. Conservation Attitudes and Perceived Biodiversity Among Divers on the Spanish Mediterranean Coast: Insights from Local Ecological Knowledge. Oceans, 6, 4.
Garrabou, J., Sala, E., Arcas, A., Zabala, M., 1998. The Impact of Diving on Rocky Sublittoral Communities: A Case Study of a Bryozoan Population. Conservation Biology, 12, 302-312.
Gerovasileiou, V., Bianchi, C.N., 2021. Mediterranean Marine Caves: A Synthesis of Current Knowledge. Oceanography and Marine Biology: An Annual Review, 59, 1-88.
Gerovasileiou, V., Voultsiadou, E., 2016. Sponge diversity gradients in marine caves of the eastern Mediterranean. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 96 (2), 407-416.
Gerovasileiou, V., Voultsiadou, E., 2012. Marine Caves of the Mediterranean Sea: A Sponge Biodiversity Reservoir within a Biodiversity Hotspot. PLoS ONE, 7 (7), e39873.
Gerovasileiou, V., Chintiroglou, C.C., Vafidis, D., Koutsoubas, D., Sini, M. et al., 2015. Census of biodiversity in marine caves of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Mediterranean Marine Science, 16 (1), 245-265.
Gerovasileiou, V., Smith, C.J., Sevastou, K., Papadopoulou, K-N., Dailianis, T., et al., 2019. Habitat mapping in the European Seas - is it fit for purpose in the marine restoration agenda? Marine Policy, 106, 103521.
Giakoumi, S., Sini, M., Gerovasileiou, V., Mazor, T., Beher, J. et al., 2013. Ecoregion-Based Conservation Planning in the Mediterranean: Dealing with Large-Scale Heterogeneity. PLoS ONE, 8 (10), e76449.
Giglio, V.J., Luiz, O.J., Ferreira, C.E.L., 2020. Ecological impacts and management strategies for recreational diving: A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 256, 109949.
Giglio, V.J., Luiz, O.J., Chadwick, N.E., Ferreira, C.E.L., 2018. Using an educational video-briefing to mitigate the ecological impacts of scuba diving. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26 (5), 782-797.
Giglio, V.J., Marconi, M., Pereira-Filho, G.H., Leite, K.L., Figueroa, A.C., et al., 2022. Scuba divers’ behavior and satisfaction in a new marine protected area: Lessons from the implementation of a best practices program. Ocean & Coastal Management, 220, 106091.
Gràcia, F., Fornós, J.J., 2021. Cinquanta anys d’espeleologia subaquàtica a Mallorca (1971-2021): humans, aigua i coves. Societat d’història natural de les Balears, 33, 283-362.
Gràcia, F., Clamor, B., Gamundí, P., Fornós, J.J., Watkinson, P., 2011. Cavitats subaquàtiques de la franja litoral de Mallorca. Monografies de la Societat d’Historia Natural de les Balears, 17, 103-132.
Hammerton, Z., 2017. Determining the variables that influence SCUBA diving impacts in eastern Australian marine parks. Ocean & Coastal Management, 142, 209-217.
Hammerton, Z., Dimmock, K., Hahn, C., Dalton, S.J., Smith, S.D.A., 2012. Scuba Diving and Marine Conservation: Collaboration at two Australian Subtropical Destinations. Tourism in Marine Environments, 8, 77-90.
Harmelin, J., 1997. Diversity of bryozoans in a Mediterranean sublittoral cave with bathyal-like conditions: role of dispersal processes and local factors. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 153, 139-152.
Harmelin, J., Vacelet, J., Vasseur, P., 1985. Les grottes sous-marines obscures: un milieu extrême et un remarquable biotope refuge. Tethys, 11, 214-229.
Jimenez, C., Achilleos, K., Petrou, A., Hadjioannou, L., Guido, A. et al., 2019. A dream within a dream: Kakoskali Cave, a unique marine ecosystem in Cyprus (Levantine Sea). p. 99- 110. In: Marine Caves of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Biodiversity, Threats and Conservation. Öztürk B (Ed.). Turkish Marine Research Foundation (TUDAV) Publication no: 53, Istanbul, Turkey.
Kazanidis, G., Guido, A., Rosso, A., Sanfilippo, R., Roberts, J.M. et al., 2022. One on top of the other: exploring the habitat cascades phenomenon in iconic biogenic marine habitats. Diversity, 14, 290.
Kenny, A.J., Cato, I., Desprez, M., Fader, G., Schüttenhelm, R.T. et al., 2003. An overview of seabed-mapping technologies in the context of marine habitat classification. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 60, 411-418.
Linares, C., Zabala, M., Garrabou, J., Coma, R., Viñolas, D.D. et al., 2010. Assessing the impact of diving in coralligenous communities : The usefulness of demographic studies of red gorgonian populations. Scientific Reports of the Port- Cros National Park, 4, 161-184.
Lloret, J., Marín, A., Marín-Guirao, L., Carreño, M.F., Francisca Carreño, M., 2006. An alternative approach for managing scuba diving in small marine protected areas. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 16 (6), 579-591.
Longo, C., Giménez, G., Miscioscia, F., Corriero, G., 2023. Sponge Fauna of the Apulian Marine Caves (Southern Italy): Current State of Knowledge. Diversity, 15, 641.
Manconi, R., Cadeddu, B., Ledda, F., Pronzato, R., 2013. An overview of the Mediterranean cave-dwelling horny sponges (Porifera, Demospongiae). ZooKeys, 281, 1-68.
March, A., Wood, L.E., Potts, J., 2022. Using recreational divers to inform more efficient conservation management within a MPA - A case study from the Cape Peninsula, South Africa. Ocean & Coastal Management, 224, 106208.
Martí, R., Uriz, M.J., Ballesteros, E., Turon, X., 2004. Benthic assemblages in two Mediterranean caves: species diversity and coverage as a function of abiotic parameters and geographic distance. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 84, 557-572.
Milazzo, M., Chemello, R., Badalamenti, F., Camarda, R., Riggio, S., 2002. The Impact of Human Recreational Activities in Marine Protected Areas: What Lessons Should Be Learnt in the Mediterranean Sea? Marine Ecology, 23, 280-290.
Montefalcone, M., De Falco, G., Nepote, E., Canessa, M., Bertolino, M. et al., 2018. Thirty year ecosystem trajectories in a submerged marine cave under changing pressure regime. Marine Environmental Research, 137, 98-110.
Navarro-Barranco, C., Ambroso, S., Gerovasileiou, V., Gómez- Gras, D., Grinyó, J., et al., 2023. Conservation of dark habitats. Chapter 6. p. 147-170. In: Coastal Habitat Conservation New Perspectives and Sustainable Development of Biodiversity in the Anthropocene. Espinosa F (Ed). Academic Press, 276 pp.
Nepote, E., Bianchi, C. N., Morri, C., Ferrari, M., Montefalcone, M., 2017. Impact of a harbour construction on the benthic community of two shallow marine caves. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 114 (4), 35-45.
Ouerghi, A., Gerovasileiou, V., Bianchi, C.N., 2019. Mediterranean marine caves: a synthesis of current knowledge and the Mediterranean Action Plan for the conservation of “dark habitats”. p. 1-13. In: Marine Caves of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Biodiversity, Threats and Conservation. Öztürk B (Ed.). Turkish Marine Research Foundation (TUDAV) Publication no: 53, Istanbul, Turkey.
Pagès-Escolà, M., Hereu, B., Rovira, G., Medrano, A., Aspillaga, E. et al., 2020. Unravelling the population dynamics of the Mediterranean bryozoan Pentapora fascialis to assess its role as an indicator of recreational diving for adaptive management of marine protected areas. Ecological Indicators, 109, 105781.
Parravicini, V., Guidetti, P., Morri, C., Montefalcone, M., Donato, M. et al., 2010. Consequences of sea water temperature anomalies on a Mediterranean submarine cave ecosystem. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 86, 276-282.
Pérès, J.-M., Picard, J., 1964. Nouveau manuel de bionomie benthique de la mer Méditerranée. Recueil des Travaux de la Station Marine d’Endoume, 47, 3-137.
Quiles-Pons, C., Baena, I., Calvo-Manazza, M., de la Ballina, N.R., Díez, S. et al., 2022. Monitoring the complex benthic habitat on semi-dark underwater marine caves using photogrammetry- based 3D reconstructions. p. 113-114. In: 3rd Mediterranean Symposium on the Conservation of Dark Habitats, Genoa, Italy, 21-22 September 2022. UNEP/ MAP-SPA/RAC, Tunis.
Ragkousis, M., Digenis, M., Kovačić, M., Katsanevakis, S., Gerovasileiou, V., 2021. Rarely Reported Cryptobenthic Fish in Marine Caves of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 9 (6), 557.
Rastorgueff, P.-A., Bellan-Santini, D., Bianchi, C.N., Bussotti, S., Chevaldonné, P. et al., 2015. An ecosystem-based approach to evaluate the ecological quality of Mediterranean undersea caves. Ecological Indicators, 54, 137-152.
Rodrigues, L.C., van den Bergh, J.C.J.M., Loureiro, M.L., Nunes, P.A.L.D., Rossi, S., 2016. The Cost of Mediterranean Sea Warming and Acidification: A Choice Experiment Among Scuba Divers at Medes Islands, Spain. Environmental and Resource Economics, 63 (2), 289-311.
Romano, E., Bergamin, L., Parise, M., 2022. Benthic Foraminifera as Environmental Indicators in Mediterranean Marine Caves: A Review. Geosciences, 12 (1), 42.
Rosso, A., Gerovasileiou, V., Sanfilippo, R., Guido, A. 2019. Bryozoan assemblages from two submarine caves in the Aegean Sea (Eastern Mediterranean). Marine Biodiversity, 49, 707-726.
Sala, E., Garrabou, J., Zabala, M., 1996. Effects of diver frequentation on Mediterranean sublittoral populations of the bryozoan Pentapora fascialis. Marine Biology, 126, 451-459.
Sanfilippo, R., Rosso, A., Guido, A., Gerovasileiou, V., 2017. Serpulid communities from two marine caves in the Aegean Sea, eastern Mediterranean. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 97 (5), 1059-1068.
Shivlani, M., Suman, D., 2000. Dive operator use patterns in the designated NoTake Zones of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). Environmental Management, 25 (6), 647-659.
Suman, D., Shivlani, M., Walter Milon, J., 1999. Perceptions and attitudes regarding marine reserves: a comparison of stakeholder groups in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. Ocean & Coastal Management, 42 (12), 1019-1040.
Trave, C., Brunnschweiler, J., Sheaves, M., Diedrich, A., Barnett, A., 2017. Are we killing them with kindness? Evaluation of sustainable marine wildlife tourism. Biological Conservation, 209, 211-222.
Turicchia, E., Cerrano, C., Ghetta, M., Abbiati, M., Ponti, M., 2021. MedSens index: The bridge between marine citizen science and coastal management. Ecological Indicators, 122, 107296.
UNEP/MAP - SPA/RAC, 2021. Action Plan for the conservation of habitats and species associated with seamounts, underwater caves and canyons, aphotic hard beds and chemo-synthetic phenomena in the Mediterranean Sea. SPA/RAC, Tunisia.
Uriz, M.J., Zabala, M., Ballesteros, E., García, A., Turon, X., 1993. El Bentos: Les coves. p. 731-748. In: Història Natural de l’Arxipèlag de Cabrera. Alcover, J., Ballesteros, E., Fornós, J. (Eds), Monografies de La Societat d’Història Natural de Les Balears.
Vacelet, J., Uriz, M.J., 1991. Deficient Spiculation in a New Species of Merlia (Merliida, Demospongiae) from the Balearic Islands. Fossil and Recent Sponges, 170-178.
Vicens, D., Gràcia, F., Balaguer, P., Ginard, A., Crespí, D., et al., 2011. Cavitats litorals de gènesi marina a les Illes Balears. Monografies de la Societat d’Historia Natural de les Balears, 17, 227-236.
Wongthong, P., Harvey, N., 2014. Integrated coastal management and sustainable tourism: A case study of the reef-based SCUBA dive industry from Thailand. Ocean & Coastal Management, 95, 138-146.
Zhang, C., Chen, Y., Xu, B., Xue, Y., Ren, Y., 2020. Improving prediction of rare species’ distribution from community data. Scientific Reports, 10 (1), 12230.
