Toward paratuberculosis control in animals: current updates and future perspectives
Published:
Jan 19, 2024
Updated:
2024-01-19
Keywords:
Control program ELISA Paratuberculosis Mycobacterium avium ssp. Paratuberculosis (MAP) PCR Plaque PCR Environmental samples Sjogren’s syndrome Crohn`s disease Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) Assay Phage amplification assay (PA) Nano-
Abstract
Paratuberculosis is a chronic non-curable disease, that affects domesticated and wild ruminants, pets and even humans. This disease causes significant economic losses worldwide. Many countries have implemented control programs to eradicate the disease. Such programs face great challenges due to the nature of the pathogen itself, the immune response, the method of pathogen shedding in susceptible animals, and the absence of accurate diagnostic tools, efficient vaccines, and curative medication. However, some control programs succeeded in eradicating the disease, others were less effective and achieved less success. The present review discusses the elements required in disease control protocols and highlights the importance of disease elimination. These control strategies include optimum application of management measures and proper use of combined diagnostic techniques to accurately identify MAP infected animals with high sensitivity and specificity. Nanotechnology has shown promising results in the diagnosis and control of paratuberculosis. All available vaccines do not completely protect the population, but they actually reduce the clinical signs, pathogen shedding and provoke cellular and humoral immune responses. Although the test and slaughter policy of paratuberculosis is considered an effective way for its control, several obstacles hinder its application.
Article Details
- How to Cite
-
El-Sayed, A., Kamel, M., & Zschoeck, M. (2024). Toward paratuberculosis control in animals: current updates and future perspectives. Journal of the Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society, 74(4), 6287–6304. https://doi.org/10.12681/jhvms.27358
- Issue
- Vol. 74 No. 4 (2023)
- Section
- Review Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
· Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
· Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g. post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
· Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (preferably in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
References
Abdellrazeq GS, El-Naggar MM, Khaliel SA, Gamal-Eldin AE (2014) Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis from cattle and buffaloes in Egypt using traditional culture, serological and molecular based methods. Veterinary World 7(8):586–593
Agrawal A, Varshney R, Gattani A, Kirthika P, Khan MH, Singh R, Kodape S, Patel SK, Singh P (2020a) Gold nanoparticle based immunochromatographic biosensor for rapid diagnosis of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection using recombinant protein. Journal of Microbiological Methods 177:106024
Agrawal G, Aitken J, Hamblin H, Collins M, Borody TJ (2020b) Putting Crohn's on the MAP: Five Common Questions on the Contribution of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis to the Pathophysiology of Crohn's Disease. Digestive Diseases and Sciences
Agrawal G, Clancy A, Huynh R, Borody T (2020c) Profound remission in Crohn’s disease requiring no further treatment for 3–23 years: a case series. Gut Pathog 12(1)
Agrawal G, Hamblin H, Clancy A, Borody T (2020d) Anti-Mycobacterial Antibiotic Therapy Induces Remission in Active Paediatric Crohn’s Disease. Microorganisms 8(8):1112
Alinovi CA, Ward MP, Lin TL, Moore GE, Wu CC (2009) Real-time PCR, compared to liquid and solid culture media and ELISA, for the detection of Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis. Veterinary Microbiology 136(1-2):177–179
Anonymus (2012) Testcharakteristika der zugelassenen ELISA-Tests für den Nachweis von Antikörpern gegen Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis beim Rind gemessen an den Referenzpanels Serum und Milch des NRL. http://www.fli.de/fileadmin/FLI/IMP/Information_NRL_Paratuberkulose.pdf
Bannantine JP, Everman JL, Rose SJ, Babrak L, Katani R, Barletta RG, Talaat AM, Gröhn YT, Chang Y-F, Kapur V, Bermudez LE (2014a) Evaluation of eight live attenuated vaccine candidates for protection against challenge with virulent Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in mice. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 4:88
Bannantine JP, Hines, Murray E, 2nd, Bermudez LE, Talaat AM, Sreevatsan S, Stabel JR, Chang Y-F, Coussens PM, Barletta RG, Davis WC, Collins DM, Gröhn YT, Kapur V (2014b) A rational framework for evaluating the next generation of vaccines against Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 4:126
Bannantine JP, Talaat AM (2015) Controlling Johne's disease: vaccination is the way forward. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 5
Barry C, Corbett D, Bakker D, Andersen P, McNair J, Strain S (2011) The Effect ofMycobacterium aviumComplex Infections on RoutineMycobacterium bovisDiagnostic Tests. Veterinary Medicine International 2011:1–7
Bastida F, Juste RA (2011) Paratuberculosis control: a review with a focus on vaccination. J Immune Based Ther Vaccines 9(1):1–17
Bates A, O’Brien R, Liggett S, Griffin F (2019) Control of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection on a New Zealand pastoral dairy farm. BMC Veterinary Research 15
Beard PM, Daniels MJ, Henderson D, Pirie A, Rudge K, Buxton D, Rhind S, Greig A, Hutchings MR, McKendrick I, Stevenson K, Sharp JM (2001a) Paratuberculosis infection of nonruminant wildlife in Scotland. J Clin Microbiol 39(4):1517–1521
Beard PM, Daniels MJ, Henderson D, Pirie A, Rudge K, Buxton D, Rhind S, Greig A, Hutchings MR, McKendrick I, Stevenson K, Sharp JM (2001b) Paratuberculosis Infection of Nonruminant Wildlife in Scotland. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 39(4):1517–1521
Begg DJ, Purdie AC, Silva K de, Dhand NK, Plain KM, Whittington RJ (2017) Variation in susceptibility of different breeds of sheep to Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis following experimental inoculation. Vet Res 48(1):1–11
Beinhauerova M, Slana I (2021) Phage Amplification Assay for Detection of Mycobacterial Infection: A Review. Microorganisms 9(2):237
Berghaus RD, Farver TB, Anderson RJ, Jaravata CC, Gardner IA (2006) Environmental Sampling for Detection of Mycobacterium Avium Ssp. Paratuberculosis on Large California Dairies. Journal of Dairy Science 89(3)
Billman-Jacobe H, Carrigan M, Cockram F, Corner LA, Gill IJ, Hill JF, Jessep T, Milner AR, Wood PR (1992) A comparison of the interferon gamma assay with the absorbed ELISA for the diagnosis of Johne's disease in cattle. Australian Veterinary Journal 69(2):25–28
Birkenhauer E, Neethirajan S (2015) Prevention and Control of Biofilms in the Food Industry and Bio-Nanotechnology Approaches. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118864036.ch4
Boadella M, Lyashchenko K, Greenwald R, Esfandiari J, Jaroso R, Carta T, Garrido JM, Vicente J, La Fuente J de, Gortázar C (2011) Serologic Tests for Detecting Antibodies againstMycobacterium BovisandMycobacterium AviumSubspeciesParatuberculosisin Eurasian Wild Boar (Sus Scrofa Scrofa). Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 23(1):77–83
Bögli‐Stuber K, Kohler C, Seitert G, Glanemann B, Antognoli MC, Salman MD, Wittenbrink MM, Wittwer M, Wassenaar T, Jemmi T (2005) Detection of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in Swiss dairy cattle by real‐time PCR and culture: a comparison of the two assays. Journal of Applied Microbiology 99(3):587–597
Bolster CH, Cook KL, Haznedaroglu BZ, Walker SL (2009) The transport of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis through saturated aquifer materials. Letters in Applied Microbiology 48(3):307–312
Borody TJ, Eslick GD, Clancy RL (2019) Fecal microbiota transplantation as a new therapy: from Clostridioides difficile infection to inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. Current Opinion in Pharmacology 49:43–51
Botsaris G, Swift BM, Slana I, Liapi M, Christodoulou M, Hatzitofi M, Christodoulou V, Rees CE (2016) Detection of viable Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in powdered infant formula by phage-PCR and confirmed by culture. International Journal of Food Microbiology 216:91–94
Bradner L, Robbe-Austerman S, Beitz DC, Stabel, JR (2013) Chemical Decontamination With N-acetyl-L-cysteine-sodium Hydroxide Improves Recovery of Viable Mycobacterium Avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Organisms From Cultured Milk. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 51(7)
Brees DJ, Reimer SB, Cheville NF, Florance A, Thoen CO (2000) Immunohistochemical Detection of Mycobacterium Paratuberculosis in Formalin-Fixed, Paraffin-Embedded Bovine Tissue Sections. Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc 12(1)
Bull TJ, Gilbert SC, Sridhar S, Linedale R, Dierkes N, Sidi-Boumedine K, Hermon-Taylor J (2007) A novel multi-antigen virally vectored vaccine against Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis. PLoS ONE 2
Canive M, Fernandez-Jimenez N, Casais R, Vázquez P, Lavín JL, Bilbao JR, Blanco-Vázquez C, Garrido JM, Juste RA, Alonso-Hearn M (2021) Identification of loci associated with susceptibility to bovine paratuberculosis and with the dysregulation of the MECOM, eEF1A2, and U1 spliceosomal RNA expression. Sci Rep 11(1)
Cernicchiaro N, Wells SJ, Janagama H, Sreevatsan S (2007a) Characterization of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis subtypes by type of culture media. Journal of Clinical Microbiology
Cernicchiaro N, Wells SJ, Janagama H, Sreevatsan S (2007b) Influence of Type of Culture Medium on Characterization of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis Subtypes. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 46(1):145–149
Chaubey KK, Singh SV, Singh PK, Gupta S, Khandelwal V, Choudhary PK, Pant G, Jayaraman S, Rawat KD (2020) Detection of anti-Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis antibodies in thyroid and type-1 diabetes patients. 0975-0967
Chiodini RJ, van Kruiningen HJ (1983) Eastern white-tailed deer as a reservoir of ruminant paratuberculosis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 182
Chiodini RJ, van Kruiningen HJ, Thayer WR, Merkal RS, Coutu JA (1984) Possible role of mycobacteria in inflammatory bowel disease. Digestive Diseases and Sciences 29(12):1073–1079
Choi S-R, Britigan BE, Narayanasamy P (2019) Treatment of Virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis and HIV Coinfected Macrophages with Gallium Nanoparticles Inhibits Pathogen Growth and Modulates Macrophage Cytokine Production. mSphere 4(4)
Çınar MU, Akyüz B, Arslan K, White SN, Neibergs HL, Gümüşsoy KS (2020) The EDN2 rs110287192 gene polymorphism is associated with paratuberculosis susceptibility in multibreed cattle population. PLOS ONE 15(9):e0238631-e0238631
Clark DL, Koziczkowski JJ, Radcliff RP, Carlson RA, Ellingson JLE (2008) Detection of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis: comparing fecal culture versus serum enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and direct fecal polymerase chain reaction. Journal of Dairy Science 91(7):2620–2627
Collins MT (1996) Diagnosis of Paratuberculosis. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice 12(2):357–371
Collins MT (2011) Diagnosis of Paratuberculosis. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice 27(3):581–591
Collins MT, Gardner IA, Garry FB, Roussel AJ, Wells SJ (2006) Consensus Recommendations on Diagnostic Testing for the Detection of Paratuberculosis in Cattle in the United States. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 229(12)
Collins MT, Lisby G, Moser C, Chicks D, Christensen S, Reichelderfer M, Høiby N, Harms BA, Thomsen O, Skibsted U, Binder V (2000) Results of Multiple Diagnostic Tests for Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease and in Control. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 38:4373
Corn JL, Manning EJB, Sreevatsan S, Fischer JR (2005) Isolation of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis from free-ranging birds and mammals on livestock premises. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71(11):6963–6967
Crawford GC, Ziccardi MH, Gonzales BJ, Woods LM, Fischer JK, Manning EJB, Mazet JAK (2006) Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium infections in a tule elk (Cervus elaphus nannodes) herd. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42(4):715–723
Curtis N, Sparrow A, Ghebreyesus TA, Netea MG (2020) Considering BCG Vaccination to Reduce the Impact of COVID-19. Lancet (London, England) 395(10236)
Daher RK, Stewart G, Boissinot M, Bergeron MG (2016) Recombinase Polymerase Amplification for Diagnostic Applications. Clinical Chemistry 62(7):947–958
Daniels MJ, Hutchings MR, Beard PM, Henderson D, Greig A, Stevenson K, Sharp JM (2003) DO NON-RUMINANT WILDLIFE POSE A RISK OF PARATUBERCULOSIS TO DOMESTIC LIVESTOCK AND VICE VERSA IN SCOTLAND? Journal of Wildlife Diseases 39(1):10–15
Desouky E (2020) BCG versus COVID-19: impact on urology. World J Urol
Deutz A, Spergser J, Wagner P, Rosengarten R, Köfer J (2005a) Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in wild animal species and cattle in Styria/Austria. BERLINER UND MUNCHENER TIERARZTLICHE WOCHENSCHRIFT 118(7-8):314–320
Deutz A, Spergser J, Wagner P, Rosengarten R, Köfer J (2005b) [Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in wild animal species and cattle in Styria/Austria]. BERLINER UND MUNCHENER TIERARZTLICHE WOCHENSCHRIFT 118(7-8)
Deutz A, Spergser J, Wagner P, Rosengarten R, Köfer J (2005c) Nachweise von Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis bei Wildtieren und Rindern in der Steiermark/Osterreich (Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in wild animal species and cattle in Styria/Austria). BERLINER UND MUNCHENER TIERARZTLICHE WOCHENSCHRIFT 118(7-8):314–320
Donaghy J, Keyser M, Johnston J, Cilliers FP, Gouws PA, Rowe MT (2009) Inactivation ofMycobacterium aviumssp.paratuberculosisin milk by UV treatment. Letters in Applied Microbiology 49(2):217–221
Donat K, Hahn N, Eisenberg T, Schlez K, Köhler H, Wolter W, Lenz M, Noll I, Pützschel R, Failing K, Zschöck M (2014) Detection limit of boot swab an liquid manure sampling for herd level screening.4th ParaTBForum, 21. Juni, Parma,Italy
Donat K, Hahn N, Eisenberg T, Schlez K, Köhler H, Wolter W, Rohde M, Pützschel R, Rösler U, Failing K, Zschöck PM (2016) Within-herd prevalence thresholds for the detection of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis-positive dairy herds using boot swabs and liquid manure samples. Epidemiology and infection 144(2):413–424
Doré E, Paré J, Côté G, Buczinski S, Labrecque O, Roy JP, Fecteau G (2012) Risk factors associated with transmission of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis to calves within dairy herd: a systematic review 26(1):32–45
Dow CT (2020) Proposing BCG Vaccination for Mycobacterium avium ss. paratuberculosis (MAP) Associated Autoimmune Diseases. Microorganisms 8(2)
Dow CT, Chan ED (2021) What is the evidence that mycobacteria are associated with the pathogenesis of Sjogren’s syndrome? Journal of Translational Autoimmunity 4:100085
Duncan TV (2011) Applications of nanotechnology in food packaging and food safety: Barrier materials, antimicrobials and sensors. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 363(1):1–24
Eisenberg SWF, Koets AP, Hoeboer J, Bouman M, Heederik D, Nielen M (2010) Presence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in environmental samples collected on commercial Dutch dairy farms. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 76(18):6310–6312
Eisenberg T, Wolter W, Lenz M, Schlez K, Zschöck M (2013) Boot swabs to collect environmental samples from common locations in dairy herds for Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP) detection. The Journal of dairy research 80(4):485–489
El-Sayed A, Kamel M (2020a) Advanced applications of nanotechnology in veterinary medicine. Environmental science and pollution research international 27(16):19073–19086
El-Sayed A, Kamel M (2020b) Advances in nanomedical applications: diagnostic, therapeutic, immunization, and vaccine production. Environmental science and pollution research international 27(16):19200–19213
El-Sayed A, Natour S, Abdou M, Salem M, Hassan A, Wolter W, Zschöck M (2013a) Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in manure and milk filters of apparently healthy dairy herds in Hesse, Germany. J Am Sci 9:469–474
El-Sayed A, Natur S, Abdou N-EM, Salem M, Hassan A, Zschöck M (2013b) Genotyping of Mycobacterium avium field isolates based on repetitive elements. International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine 1(1):36–42
Eppleston J, Windsor PA (2007) Lesions attributed to vaccination of sheep with Gudair for the control of ovine paratuberculosis: post farm economic impacts at slaughter. Aust Vet J 85
Faisal SM, Yan F, Chen T-T, Useh NM, Guo S, Yan W, Wang S-J, Glaser AL, McDonough SP, Singh B, Chang Y-F (2013) Evaluation of a Salmonella Vectored Vaccine Expressing Mycobacterium avium Subsp. paratuberculosis Antigens Against Challenge in a Goat Model. PLoS ONE 8(8)
Fang Y, Wu WH, Pepper JL, Larsen JL, Marras SA, Nelson EA, Epperson WB, Christopher-Hennings J (2002) Comparison of Real-Time, Quantitative PCR With Molecular Beacons to Nested PCR and Culture Methods for Detection of Mycobacterium Avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis in Bovine Fecal Samples. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 40(1)
Fawzy A, Eisenberg T, El-Sayed A, Zschöck M (2015) Improvement of Sensitivity for Mycobacterium Avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis (MAP) Detection in Bovine Fecal Samples by Specific Duplex F57/IC Real-Time and Conventional IS900 PCRs After Solid Culture Enrichment. Tropical Animal Health and Production 47(4)
Fawzy A, Fayed A, Youssef H, El-Sayed A, Zschöck M (2016) First Report of MIRU-VNTR Genotyping of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. paratuberculosis Isolates From Egypt. Iranian journal of veterinary research 17(2)
Fawzy A, Prince A, Hassan AA, Fayed A, Zschöck M, Naga M, Omar M, Salem M, El-Sayed A (2013) Epidemiological studies on Johne’s disease in ruminants and Crohn’s disease in humans in Egypt. International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine 1(2):79–86
Fecteau M-E, Hovingh E, Whitlock RH, Sweeney RW (2013) Persistence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in soil, crops, and ensiled feed following manure spreading on infected dairy farms. The Canadian Veterinary Journal 54(11):1083–1085
Ferroglio E, Nebbia P, Robino P, Rossi L, Rosati S (2000) Mycobacterium paratuberculosis infection in two free-ranging Alpine ibex. Revue scientifique et technique (International Office of Epizootics) 19(3):859–862
Fischer O, Mátlová L, Dvorská L, . Švástová P, Bartl J, Melichárek I, Weston RT, Pavlík I (2001) Diptera as vectors of mycobacterial infections in cattle and pigs. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 15(2):208–211
Fischer OA, Matlova L, Dvorska L, Svastova P, Bartl J, Weston RT, Pavlik I (2004a) Blowflies Calliphora vicina and Lucilia sericata as passive vectors of Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium, M. a. paratuberculosis and M. a. hominissuis. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 18(2):116–122
Fischer OA, Matlova L, Dvorska L, Svastova P, Bartos M, Weston RT, Kopecna M, Trcka I, Pavlik I (2005) Potential risk of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis spread by syrphid flies in infected cattle farms. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 19(4):360–366
Fischer OA, Matlova L, Dvorska L, Svastova P, Peral DL, Weston RT, Bartos M, Pavlik I (2004b) Beetles as possible vectors of infections caused by Mycobacterium avium species. Veterinary Microbiology 102(3-4):247–255
Florou M, Leontides L, Kostoulas P, Billinis C, Sofia M, Kyriazakis I, Lykotrafitis F (2008) Isolation of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis from non-ruminant wildlife living in the sheds and on the pastures of Greek sheep and goats. Epidemiol. Infect. 136(5):644–652
Francis J (1943) Infection of Laboratory Animals with Mycobacterium Johnei. Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics 53:140-IN12
Ganareal TA, Balbin MM, Monserate JJ, Salazar JR, Mingala CN (2018) Gold nanoparticle-based probes for the colorimetric detection of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis DNA. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 496(3):988–997
Garcia AB, Madsen AL, Vigre H (2013) Integration of Epidemiological Evidence in a Decision Support Model for the Control of Campylobacter in Poultry Production. Agriculture 3(3):516–535
Garcia AB, Shalloo L (2015) Invited review: The economic impact and control of paratuberculosis in cattle. Journal of Dairy Science 98(8):5019–5039
Garcia‐Ispierto I, López‐Gatius F (2016) Early Foetal Loss Correlates Positively with Seroconversion against Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis in High‐Producing Dairy Cows. Reproduction in Domestic Animals 51(2):227–231
Gardner IA, Nielsen SS, Whittington RJ, Collins MT, Bakker D, Harris B, … Gavalchin J (2011) Consensus based reporting standards for diagnostic test accuracy studies for paratuberculosis in ruminants. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 101(1-2):18–34
Garg A, Singhal N, Kumar M (2020a) Discerning novel drug targets for treating Mycobacterium avium ss. paratuberculosis-associated autoimmune disorders: an in silico approach. Briefings in Bioinformatics
Garg A, Singhal N, Kumar M (2020b) Discerning novel drug targets for treating Mycobacterium avium ss. paratuberculosis-associated autoimmune disorders: an in silico approach. Briefings in Bioinformatics
Geilhausen HE Serological survey on infectious diseases of a white yak herd in the Gansu Province. In: Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Yak production in central Asian highlands (4th–9th September 2000), Lhasa, PR China, pp 445–449
Geisbauer E, Khol JL, Wassertheurer M, Damoser J, Osterreicher E, Dünser M, Revilla-Fernández S, Baumgartner W (2007) Longterm investigation in an Austrian dairy herd with low prevalence of paratuberculosis detection of antibodies in blood and milk. The veterinary quarterly 29(4):138–148
Geue L, Köhler H, Klawonn W, Dräger K, Hess G., Conraths FJ (2007) Untersuchungen zur Eignung von ELISAs zum Nachweis von Antikörpern gegen Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis in Tankmilchproben. http://www.dvg.net/avid/mycobact/geue.pdf
Gevers D, Kugathasan S, Denson LA, Vázquez-Baeza Y, van Treuren W, Ren B, Schwager E, Knights D, Song SJ, Yassour M, Morgan XC, Kostic AD, Luo C, González A, McDonald D, Haberman Y, Walters T, Baker S, Rosh J, Stephens M, Heyman M, Markowitz J, Baldassano R, Griffiths A, Sylvester F, Mack D, Kim S, Crandall W, Hyams J, Huttenhower C, Knight R, Xavier RJ (2014) The Treatment-Naive Microbiome in New-Onset Crohn’s Disease. Cell Host & Microbe 15(3):382–392
Goodger WJ, Collins MT, Nordlund KV, Eisele C, Pelletier J, Thomas CB, Sockett DC (1996) Epidemiologic study of on-farm management practices associated with prevalence of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis infections in dairy cattle. J Am Vet Med Assoc 208
Grant IR, Foddai AC, Tarrant JC, Kunkel B, Hartmann FA, McGuirk S, Hansen C, Talaat AM, Collins MT (2017) Viable Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis isolated from calf milk replacer. Journal of Dairy Science 100(12):9723–9735
Grewal SK, Rajeev S, Sreevatsan S, Michel FC (2006) Persistence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis and other zoonotic pathogens during simulated composting, manure packing, and liquid storage of dairy manureManure. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 72(1):565–574
Hansen S, Schäfer J, Fechner K, Czerny C-P, Abd El Wahed A (2016) Development of a Recombinase Polymerase Amplification Assay for Rapid Detection of the Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. PLOS ONE 11(12):e0168733
Harding HP (1959) The histopathology ofMycobacterium johnei infection in small laboratory animals. The Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology 78(1):157–169
Hirch A (1956) Infection of Hamsters and Rabbits with Mycobacterium Johnei. Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics 66:260–269
Honap S, Johnston E, Agrawal G, Al-Hakim B, Hermon-Taylor J, Sanderson J (2020a) Anti-Mycobacterium paratuberculosis (MAP) therapy for Crohn’s disease: an overview and update. Frontline Gastroenterology:flgastro-2020-101471
Honap S, Johnston E, Agrawal G, Al-Hakim B, Hermon-Taylor J, Sanderson J (2020b) Anti-Mycobacterium paratuberculosis (MAP) therapy for Crohn’s disease: an overview and update. Frontline Gastroenterology:flgastro-2020-101471
HRUSKA K, Bartos M, Kralik P, Pavlik I (2012) Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosisin powdered infant milk: paratuberculosis in cattle – the public health problem to be solved. Veterinární Medicína 50(No. 8):327–335
Huntley JF, Stabel JR, Paustian ML, Reinhardt TA, Bannantine JP (2005) Expression library immunization confers protection against Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection. Infect Immun 73
Jessup DA, Abbas B (1981) Paratuberculosis in tule elk in California
Johnston C, Coffey A, O' Mahony J, Sleator RD (2010) Development of a novel oral vaccine against Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis and Johne disease: a patho-biotechnological approach. Bioeng Bugs 1(3):155–163
Jubb T (2000) Herd testing to control bovine Johne's disease. Veterinary Microbiology 77(3-4):423–428
Juste RA, Vazquez P, Ruiz-Larrañaga O, Iriondo M, Manzano C, Agirre M, Estonba A, Geijo MV, Molina E, Sevilla IA, Alonso-Hearn M, Gomez N, Perez V, Cortes A, Garrido JM (2018) Association between combinations of genetic polymorphisms and epidemiopathogenic forms of bovine paratuberculosis. Heliyon 4(2)
Kadam M, Shardul S, Bhagath JL, Tiwari V, Prasad N, Goswami PP (2009) Coexpression of 16.8 kDa antigen of Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis and murine gamma interferon in a bicistronic vector and studies on its potential as DNA vaccine. Veterinary research communications 33
Kathaperumal K, Kumanan V, McDonough S, Chen L-H, Park S-U, Moreira MAS, Akey B, Huntley J, Chang C-F, Chang Y-F (2009) Evaluation of immune responses and protective efficacy in a goat model following immunization with a coctail of recombinant antigens and a polyprotein of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. Vaccine 27(1):123–135
Kawaji S, Nagata R, Mori Y (2013) Detection and Confirmation of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Direct Quantitative PCR Positive Fecal Samples by the Manual Fluorescent MGIT Culture System. The Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 76(1):65–72
Khanna S, Le Raffals (2017) The Microbiome in Crohn's Disease: Role in Pathogenesis and Role of Microbiome Replacement Therapies. Gastroenterology clinics of North America 46(3)
Kleinnijenhuis J, Quintin J, Preijers F, Benn CS, Joosten LA, Jacobs C, van Loenhout J, Xavier RJ, Aaby P, van der Meer JW, van Crevel R, Netea MG (2013) Long-Lasting Effects of BCG Vaccination on Both Heterologous Th1/Th17 Responses and Innate Trained Immunity. Journal of Innate Immunity 6(2):152–158
Koechler J, Gschaider S, Spergser J, Tichy A, Mader C, Vill M, Ortners P, Koessler J, Khol JL (2017) Reproducibility of negative boot swab samples for paratuberculosis in cattle herds in Tyrol (Austria). BERLINER UND MUNCHENER TIERARZTLICHE WOCHENSCHRIFT 130(1-2):29–33
Koets A, Hoek A, Langelaar M, Overdijk M, Santema W, Franken P, Eden W, Rutten V (2006) Mycobacterial 70 kD heat-shock protein is an effective subunit vaccine against bovine paratuberculosis. Vaccine 24
Koets AP, Adugna G, Janss L, van Weering HJ, Kalis C, Wentink GH, Rutten V, Schukken YH (2000) Genetic Variation of Susceptibility to Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis Infection in Dairy Cattle. Journal of Dairy Science 83(11):2702–2708
Köhler H, Gierke F, Möbius P (2008) Paratuberculosis–current concepts and future of the diagnosis. Magyar Allatorvosok Lapja 130:67–69
Kopecna M, Ondrus S, Literak I, Klimes J, Horvathova A, Moravkova M, Bartos M, Trcka I, Pavlik I (2006) Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Two Brown Bears in the Central European Carpathians. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 42(3):691–695
Körmendy B (1988) Diagnostic value of mammalian, avian and johnin PPD tuberculins in cattle herds infected by Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. Acta veterinaria Hungarica 36(3-4):177
Kudahl AB, Nielsen SS, Østergaard S (2008) Economy, efficacy, and feasibility of a risk-based control program against paratuberculosis. Journal of Dairy Science 91(12):4599–4609
Kukanich KS, Vinasco J, Scott HM (2013) Detection of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis from Intestinal and Nodal Tissue of Dogs and Cats. ISRN Vet Sci 2013:323671
Larsen AB, Miller JM (1979) Susceptibility of the lemming (Dicrostonyx rubricatus) to Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. American Journal of Veterinary Research 40(11):1657–1658
Larsen AB, Moon HW, Merkal RS (1972) Susceptibility of horses to Mycobacterium paratuberculosis. American Journal of Veterinary Research 33(11):2185–2189
Lavers CJ, McKenna SL, Dohoo IR, Barkema HW, Keefe GP (2013) Evaluation of environmental fecal culture for Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis detection in dairy herds and association with apparent within-herd prevalence. The Canadian Veterinary Journal 54(11):1053–1060
Lenz M, Lang M, Failing K, Kremer PV, Wolter W, . Kao M, Zschöck M((2014) Paratuberkulose-Diagnostik in anamnestisch-positiven Milchviehbetrieben: Ein Vergleich zwischen ELISA und Kotkultur. 10. Berlin Brandenburgischer Rindertag, Berlin
Liang J, Sha SM, Wu KC (2014) Role of the intestinal microbiota and fecal transplantation in inflammatory bowel diseases. Journal of Digestive Diseases 15(12):641–646
Lisle GW de, Pamela Kawakami R, Yates GF, Collins DM (2008) Isolation of Mycobacterium bovis and other mycobacterial species from ferrets and stoats. Veterinary Microbiology 132(3-4):402–407
Lombard JE (2011) Epidemiology and Economics of Paratuberculosis. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice 27(3):525–535
Losinger WC (2005) Economic impact of reduced milk production associated with Johne's disease on dairy operations in the USA. Journal of Dairy Research 72(4):425–432
Lu Z, Mitchell RM, Smith RL, Van KJS, Chapagain PP, Schukken YH, Grohn YT (2008) The Importance of Culling in Johne's Disease Control. Journal of theoretical biology 254(1)
Luo L, Buck J de (2020) Inducing cellular immune responses with a marked Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis strain in dairy calves. Veterinary Microbiology 244:108665
Machackova M, Svastova P, Lamka J, Parmova I, Liska V, Smolik J, Fischer O, Pavlik I (2004) Paratuberculosis in farmed and free-living wild ruminants in the Czech Republic (1999–2001). Veterinary Microbiology 101(4):225–234
Manning EJ, Steinberg H, Krebs V, Collins MT (2003) Diagnostic testing patterns of natural Mycobacterium paratuberculosis infection in pygmy goats. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 67(3):213–218
Manning EJB, Collins MT (2001) Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis: pathogen, pathogenesis and diagnosis. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l'OIE 20(1):133–150
Manning EJB, Collins MT (2010) Epidemiology of paratuberculosis. Paratuberculosis: organism, disease, control Oxfordshire: CAB International:22–27
Marei AM, El-Behedy EM, Mohtady HA, Afify AF (2003) Evaluation of a rapid bacteriophage-based method for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical samples. Journal of Medical Microbiology 52(4):331–335
Marie-Eve Fecteau, Dipti W. Pitta, Bonnie Vecchiarelli, Nagaraju Indugu, Sanjay Kumar, Susan C. Gallagher, Terry L. Fyock, Raymond W. Sweeney (2016) Dysbiosis of the Fecal Microbiota in Cattle Infected with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis. PLOS ONE 11(8):e0160353
Marsh IB, Whittington RJ (2001) Progress towards a rapid polymerase chain reaction diagnostic test for the identification of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in faeces. Molecular and Cellular Probes 15(2):105–118
Mason O, Marsh IB, Whittington RJ (2001) Comparison of immunomagnetic bead separation-polymerase chain reaction and faecal culture for the detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis in sheep faeces. Australian Veterinary Journal 79(7):497–500
Matsuoka K, Kanai T (2014) The gut microbiota and inflammatory bowel disease. Seminars in Immunopathology 37(1):47–55
McAloon CG, Roche S, Ritter C, Barkema HW, Whyte P, More SJ, O’Grady L, Green MJ, Doherty ML (2019) A review of paratuberculosis in dairy herds — Part 2: On-farm control. The Veterinary Journal 246:54–58
McNees AL, Markesich D, Zayyani NR, Graham DY (2015) Mycobacterium paratuberculosis as a cause of Crohn's disease. Expert Review of Gastroenterology & Hepatology 9(12):1523–1534
McNerney R, Kambashi BS, Kinkese J, Tembwe R, Godfrey-Faussett P (2004) Development of a Bacteriophage Phage Replication Assay for Diagnosis of Pulmonary Tuberculosis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 42(5):2115–2120
Miranda A, Pires MA, Pinto ML, Sousa L, Sargo R, Rodrigues J, Coelho AC, Matos M, Coelho AM (2009) Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in a diamant sparrow. Veterinary Record 165(6):184
Mirza Alizadeh A, Masoomian M, Shakooie M, Zabihzadeh Khajavi M, Farhoodi M (2020) Trends and applications of intelligent packaging in dairy products: a review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition:1–15
Mokresh AH, Butler DG (1990) Granulomatous enteritis following oral inoculation of newborn rabbits with Mycobacterium paratuberculosis of bovine origin. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research 54(3):313–319
More S, Bøtner A, Butterworth A, Calistri P, Depner K, Edwards S, Garin‐Bastuji B, Good M, Schmidt CG, Michel V (2017) Assessment of listing and categorisation of animal diseases within the framework of the Animal Health Law (Regulation (EU) No 2016/429): paratuberculosis. EFSA Journal 15(7)
More SJ, Cameron AR, Strain S, Cashman W, Ezanno P, Kenny K, Fourichon C, Graham D (2015) Evaluation of Testing Strategies to Identify Infected Animals at a Single Round of Testing Within Dairy Herds Known to Be Infected With Mycobacterium Avium Ssp. Paratuberculosis. Journal of Dairy Science 98(8)
Mortensen H, Nielsen SS, Berg P (2004) Genetic Variation and Heritability of the Antibody Response to Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in Danish Holstein Cows. Journal of Dairy Science 87(7):2108–2113
Okuni JB, Hansen S, Eltom KH, Eltayeb E, Amanzada A, Omega JA, Czerny CP, Abd El Wahed A, Ojok L (2020) Paratuberculosis: A Potential Zoonosis and a Neglected Disease in Africa. Microorganisms 8(7):1007
Olsen I, Sigurðardóttir Ó, Djønne B (2002) Paratuberculosis with special reference to cattle A review. Veterinary Quarterly 24(1):12–28
Ozdemir C, Kucuksezer UC, Tamay ZU Is BCG vaccination affecting the spread and severity of COVID‐19? Allergy
Palacios A, Sampedro L, Sevilla IA, Molina E, Gil D, Azkargorta M, Elortza F, Garrido JM, Anguita J, Prados-Rosales R (2019) Mycobacterium tuberculosis extracellular vesicle-associated lipoprotein LpqH as a potential biomarker to distinguish paratuberculosis infection or vaccination from tuberculosis infection. BMC Veterinary Research 15(1):188
Park SU, Kathaperumal K, McDonough S, Akey B, Huntley J, Bannantine JP, Chang YF (2008) Immunization with a DNA vaccine cocktail induces a Th1 response and protects mice against Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis challenge. Vaccine 26
Pillars RB, Grooms DL, Kaneene JB (2009a) Longitudinal study of the distribution of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in the environment of dairy herds in the Michigan Johne’s disease control demonstration herd project. The Canadian Veterinary Journal 50(10):1039–1046
Pillars RB, Grooms DL, Woltanski JA, Blair E (2009b) Prevalence of Michigan dairy herds infected with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis as determined by environmental sampling. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 89(3-4):191–196
R. J. Whittington, S. Fell, D. Walker, S. McAllister, I. Marsh, E. Sergeant, C. A. Taragel, D. J. Marshall, I. J. Links (2000) Use of Pooled Fecal Culture for Sensitive and Economic Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosisInfection in Flocks of Sheep. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 38(7):2550–2556
Radia D, K. Bond, G. Limon, S. van Winden, J. Guitian (2013) Relationship between periparturient management, prevalence of MAP and preventable economic losses in UK dairy herds. Veterinary Record
Raizman EA, Wells S, Godden SM, Bey RF, Oakes MJ, Bentley DC, Olsen KE (2004) The Distribution of Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis in the Environment Surrounding Minnesota Dairy Farms. Journal of Dairy Science 87(9):2959–2966
Reddacliff LA, Beh K, McGREGOR H, Whittington RJ (2005) A preliminary study of possible genetic influences on the susceptibility of sheep to Johne's disease. Australian Veterinary Journal 83(7):435–441
Rees C, Botsaris G (2012) The Use of Phage for Detection, Antibiotic Sensitivity Testing and Enumeration. http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/29734
Ridge SE, Harkin JT, Badman RT, Am MELLOR, Larsen JW (1995) Johne's disease in alpacas (Lama pacos) in Australia. Australian Veterinary Journal 72(4):150–153
Robbe‐Austerman S, Krull AC, Stabel JR (2006) Time Delay, Temperature Effects and Assessment of Positive Controls on Whole Blood for the Gamma Interferon ELISA to Detect Paratuberculosis. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B 53(5):213–217
Rossi G, Grohn YT, Schukken YH, Smith RL (2017) The effect of Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis infection on clinical mastitis occurrence in dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 100(9):7446–7454
Rothel JS, Jones SL, La Corner, Cox JC, Wood PR (1990) A Sandwich Enzyme Immunoassay for Bovine Interferon-Gamma and Its Use for the Detection of Tuberculosis in Cattle. Australian Veterinary Journal 67(4)
Roupie V, Leroy B, Rosseels V, Piersoel V, Noel-Georis I, Romano M, Govaerts M, Letesson JJ, Wattiez R, Huygen K (2008) Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of DNA vaccines encoding MAP0586c and MAP4308c of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis secretome. Vaccine 26
Ruiz-Larrañaga O, Garrido JM, Iriondo M, Manzano C, Molina E, Koets AP, Rutten VPMG, Juste RA, Estonba A (2010a) Genetic association between bovine NOD2 polymorphisms and infection by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Holstein-Friesian cattle. Animal genetics 41(6):652–655
Ruiz-Larrañaga O, Garrido JM, Iriondo M, Manzano C, Molina E, Montes I, Vazquez P, Koets AP, Rutten VPMG, Juste RA, Estonba A (2010b) SP110 as a novel susceptibility gene for Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection in cattle. Journal of Dairy Science 93(12):5950–5958
Salem M, El-Deeb W, Abdel-Moein A, El-Sayed A, Zschöck M (2017) Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in an Egyptian mixed breeding farm and comparative molecular characterisation of isolates from cattle, camels and cats-a case report. Bulgarian Journal of Veterinary Medicine
Salem M, El-Deeb W, Abdel-Moein K, El-Sayed A, Fayed A, Housawi F, Al-Naeem A, Zschöck M (2019) Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in an Egyptian mixed breeding farm and comparative molecular characterisation of isolates from cattle, camels and cats – a case report. Bulgarian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 22(1):41–49
Salem M, El-Sayed A, Fayed A, Abo-El-Hassan DG (2012) Subclinical infection of paratuberculosis among camels in Egypt. The Journal of American Science 8(12):1141–1147
Salem M, Heydel C, El-Sayed A, Ahmed SA, Zschöck M, Baljer G (2013a) Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis : an insidious problem for the ruminant industry. Trop Anim Health Prod 45(2):351–366
Salem M, Natur S, El-Sayed AA, Hassan A, Baljer G, Zschöck M (2013b) Molecular characterization of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis field isolates recovered from dairy cattle in Germany. International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine 1(1):30–35
Salem M, Zeid AA, Hassan D, El-Sayed A, Zschoeck M (2005a) Studies on Johne's Disease in Egyptian Cattle. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B 52(3):134–137
Salem M, Zeid AA, Hassan D, El‐Sayed A, & Zschoeck M (2005b) Studies on Johne's Disease in Egyptian Cattle. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B 52(3):134–137
Salgado M, Corti P, Verdugo C, Tomckowiack C, Moreira R, Durán K, Avilez C, Tejeda C (2017) Evidence of Mycobacterium avium subsp . paratuberculosis (MAP) infection in huemul deer (Hippocamelus bisulcus ) in patagonian fjords. Austral journal of veterinary sciences 49(2):135–137
Salgado M, Herthnek D, Bölske G, Leiva S, Kruze J (2009) FIRST ISOLATION OF MYCOBACTERIUM AVIUM SUBSP. PARATUBERCULOSIS FROM WILD GUANACOS (LAMA GUANICOE) ON TIERRA DEL FUEGO ISLAND. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 45(2):295–301
Sandeep K. Gupta, Natalie A. Parlane, Dongwen Luo, Bernd H. A. Rehm, Axel Heiser, Bryce M. Buddle, D. Neil Wedlock Self-assembled particulate vaccine elicits strong immune responses and reduces Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in mice. Sci Rep 10(1):1–14
Sardaro R, Pieragostini E, Rubino G, Petazzi F (2017) Impact of Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis on profit efficiency in semi-extensive dairy sheep and goat farms of Apulia, southern Italy. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 136:56–64
Sattar A, Zakaria Z, Abu J, Aziz SA, Rojas-Ponce G (2021) Isolation of Mycobacterium avium and other nontuberculous mycobacteria in chickens and captive birds in peninsular Malaysia. BMC Veterinary Research 17(1):1–13
Sechi LA, Mara L, Cappai P, Frothingam R, Ortu S, Leoni A, Ahmed N, Zanetti S (2006a) Immunization with DNA vaccines encoding different mycobacterial antigens elicits a Th1 type immune response in lambs and protects against Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection. Vaccine 24(3):229–235
Sechi LA, Mara L, Cappai P, Frothingam R, Ortu S, Leoni A, Ahmed N, Zanetti S (2006b) Immunization with DNA vaccines encoding different mycobacterial antigens elicits a Th1 type immune response in lambs and protects against Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis infection. Vaccine 24(3):229–235
Sharp JM, Stevenson K, Challans JA, Ramage C, Hitchcock D, Reid HW Mycobacterial infections of free living deer in Scotland. In: Sharp J M, Stevenson K, Challans J A, Ramage C, Hitchcock D, Reid H W. (ed) Proceedings of the Fifth International Colloquium on Paratuberculosis. International Association for Paratuberculosis, Inc., East Providence, RI, pp 180–182
Singh A, Mahajan R, Kao D, Midha V, Sood A (2020) Long term management of ulcerative colitis with Faecal Microbiota Transplantation. Medicine in Microecology 6:100026
Singh M, Singh SV, Gupta S, Chaubey KK, Stephan BJ, Sohal JS, Dutta M (2018) 'Nano-immuno test' for the detection of live Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis bacilli in the milk samples using magnetic nano-particles and chromogen. Veterinary research communications 42(3):183–194
Singh SR (2010) Stem cells as potential therapeutic targets for inflammatory bowel disease. Frontiers in Bioscience S2(3):993–1008
Smith RL, Al-Mamun MA, Gröhn YT (2017) Economic consequences of paratuberculosis control in dairy cattle: A stochastic modeling study. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 138:17–27
Smith RL, Schukken YH, Pradhan AK, Smith JM, Whitlock RH, van Kessel JS, Wolfgang DR, Grohn YT (2011) Environmental contamination with Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in endemically infected dairy herds. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 102(1):1–9
Soldati G, Lu ZH, Vaughan L, Polkinghorne A, Zimmermann DR, Huder JB, Pospischil A (2004) Detection of Mycobacteria and Chlamydiae in Granulomatous Inflammation of Reptiles: A Retrospective Study. Veterinary Pathology 41(4):388–397
Sorge US, Lissemore K, Godkin A, Hendrick S, Wells S, Kelton D (2011) Associations between paratuberculosis milk ELISA result, milk production, and breed in Canadian dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science 94(2):754–761
Stabel JR, Bosworth TL, Kirkbride TA, Forde RL, Whitlock RH (2004) A simple, rapid, and effective method for the extraction of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis DNA from fecal samples for polymerase chain reaction. Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc 16(1):22–30
St-Jean G, Jernigan AD (1991) Treatment of Mycobacterium Paratuberculosis Infection in Ruminants. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice 7(3):793–804
Sweeney RW, Whitlock RH, McAdams SC (2006) Comparison of three DNA preparation methods for real-time polymerase chain reaction confirmation of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis growth in an automated broth culture system. Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc 18(6):587–590
Swift BMC, Meade N, Barron ES, Bennett M, Perehenic T, Hughes V, Stevenson K, Rees CED (2020) The development and use of Actiphage ® to detect viable mycobacteria from bovine tuberculosis and Johne’s disease‐infected animals. Microbial Biotechnology 13(3):738–746
Thukral A, Ross K, Hansen C, Phanse Y, Narasimhan B, Steinberg H, Talaat AM (2020) A single dose polyanhydride-based nanovaccine against paratuberculosis infection. NPJ Vaccines 5
Timms VJ, Hassan KA, Mitchell HM, Neilan BA (2015) Comparative genomics between human and animal associated subspecies of the Mycobacterium avium complex: a basis for pathogenicity. BMC Genomics 16(1):695
Ugochukwu AI, Phillips PWB, Ochieng' BJ (2020) Driving Adoption and Commercialization of Subunit Vaccines for Bovine Tuberculosis and Johne's Disease: Policy Choices and Implications for Food Security. Vaccines (Basel) 8(4):667
Vázquez P, Ruiz-Larrañaga O, Garrido JM, Iriondo M, Manzano C, Agirre M, Estonba A, Juste RA (2014) Genetic Association Analysis of Paratuberculosis Forms in Holstein-Friesian Cattle. Veterinary Medicine International 2014
Velaz-Faircloth M, Cobb AJ, Horstman AL, Henry SC, Frothingham R (1999) Protection against Mycobacterium avium by DNA vaccines expressing mycobacterial antigens as fusion proteins with green fluorescent protein. Infect Immun 67
Waddell LA, Rajić A, Stärk KDC, McEwen SA (2015) The zoonotic potential ofMycobacterium aviumssp.paratuberculosis: a systematic review and meta-analyses of the evidence. Epidemiol. Infect. 143(15):3135–3157
Waddell LA, Rajić A, Stärk KDC, McEwen SA (2016) The potential Public Health Impact of Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis: Global Opinion Survey of Topic Specialists. Zoonoses and public health 63(3):212–222
Wang W, Chen L, Zhou R, Wang X, Song L, Huang S, Wang G, Xia B, Forbes BA (2013) Increased Proportions of Bifidobacterium and the Lactobacillus Group and Loss of Butyrate-Producing Bacteria in Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52(2):398–406
Weber MF (2006) Risk management of paratuberculosis in dairy herds. Irish veterinary journal 59(10):555–561
Weber MF, Schaik GV (2008) Results of the Dutch bulk milk quality assurance programme for paratuberculosis. Proceedings of the 9th International Colloquium on Paratuberculosis, Tsukuba, Japan, 29 October-2 November 2007. International Association for Paratuberculosis, 2008
Wells SJ, Collins MT, Faaberg KS, Wees C, Tavornpanich S, Petrini KR, Collins JE, Cernicchiaro N, Whitlock RH (2006) Evaluation of a Rapid Fecal PCR Test for Detection of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Dairy Cattle▿. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 13(10):1125–1130
Wells SJ, Godden SM, Lindeman CJ, Collins JE (2003) Evaluation of bacteriologic culture of individual and pooled fecal samples for detection of Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in dairy cattle herds. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 223(7):1022–1025
Whitlock R (2000) ELISA and fecal culture for paratuberculosis (Johne's disease): sensitivity and specificity of each method. Veterinary Microbiology 77(3-4):387–398
Whitlock RH, Buergelt C (1996) Preclinical and Clinical Manifestations of Paratuberculosis (Including Pathology). Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice 12(2):345–356
Whittington R, Donat K, Weber MF, Kelton D, Nielsen SS, Eisenberg S, Arrigoni N, Juste R, Sáez JL, Dhand N, Santi A, Michel A, Barkema H, Kralik P, Kostoulas P, Citer L, Griffin F, Barwell R, Moreira MAS, Slana I, Koehler H, Singh SV, Yoo HS, Chávez-Gris G, Goodridge A, Ocepek M, Garrido J, Stevenson K, Collins M, Alonso B, Cirone K, Paolicchi F, Gavey L, Rahman MT, Marchin E de, van Praet W, Bauman C, Fecteau G, McKenna S, Salgado M, Fernández-Silva J, Dziedzinska R, Echeverría G, Seppänen J, Thibault V, Fridriksdottir V, Derakhshandeh A, Haghkhah M, Ruocco L, Kawaji S, Momotani E, Heuer C, Norton S, Cadmus S, Agdestein A, Kampen A, Szteyn J, Frössling J, Schwan E, Caldow G, Strain S, Carter M, Wells S, Munyeme M, Wolf R, Gurung R, Verdugo C, Fourichon C, Yamamoto T, Thapaliya S, Di Labio E, Ekgatat M, Gil A, Alesandre AN, Piaggio J, Suanes A, Waard JH de (2019) Control of paratuberculosis: who, why and how. A review of 48 countries. BMC Veterinary Research 15(1):198
Whittington RJ, Begg DJ, de SK, Plain KM, Purdie AC (2012) Comparative Immunological and Microbiological Aspects of Paratuberculosis as a Model Mycobacterial Infection. Veterinary immunology and immunopathology 148(1-2)
Whittington RJ, Marshall DJ, Nicholls PJ, Marsh IB, Reddacliff LA (2004) Survival and Dormancy of Mycobacterium aviumsubsp. paratuberculosis in theEnvironment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 70(5):2989–3004
Williams ES, Spraker TR, Schoonveld G (1979) PARATUBERCULOSIS (JOHNE'S DISEASE) IN BIGHORN SHEEP AND A ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT IN COLORADO. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 15(2):221–227
Yoshimatsu Y, Mikami Y, Kanai T (2021) Bacteriotherapy for inflammatory bowel disease. Inflammation and Regeneration 41(1)
Zimmer K, Dräger KG, Klawonn W, Hess RG (1999) Contribution to the diagnosis of Johne's disease in cattle. Comparative studies on the validity of Ziehl-Neelsen staining, faecal culture and a commercially available DNA-Probe test in detecting Mycobacterium paratuberculosis in faeces from cattle. Zentralblatt fur Veterinarmedizin. Reihe B. Journal of veterinary medicine. Series B 46(2):137–140
