The round sardinella (Sardinella aurita Valenciennes, 1847) from the NW Mediterranean: a healthy and safe choice for human consumption
Abstract
The round sardinella (Sardinella aurita Valenciennes, 1847) is a common pelagic species in the NW Mediterranean, with a low economic value. To evaluate its potential as a resource, a comprehensive study including the nutritional status (proximate and fatty acid composition), zoonotic parasites and heavy metals of fish captured off the coast of Barcelona (NW Mediterranean) was carried out. Thus, 200 specimens were seasonally caught aboard commercial purse seiner fishing vessels between 2022 and 2023. Present results indicate that round sardinella should be considered a lean fish given its low total lipid content, varying seasonally, being higher in spring (1.69%) and lower in summer (0.30-0.62%). Interestingly, during summer (spawning period) and autumn, a high proportion of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (46.7-53.7% of the total fatty acids) was observed whereas palmitic acid (C16:0) (45.8% of total fatty acids) was predominant in winter. These variations, probably linked to diet composition, reproductive period and breeding strategy, are discussed. Consuming a daily meal portion of 100 g of round sardinella in summer and autumn provides 206 to 290 mg of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)+DHA, fitting inside the recommended levels. Similarly, the atherogenic and thrombogenic indices from this period remained within the optimal range. Moreover, the absence of zoonotic parasites and low levels of heavy metals detected indicate that its consumption, especially in autumn, is both healthy and safe for human health. Promoting this fish in autumn would also enhance sustainable fishery by distributing fishing pressure across various pelagic fish species, given the current decline in these populations.
Article Details
- Zitationsvorschlag
-
MUNS-PUJADAS, L., CONSTENLA, M., DALLARÉS, S., SOLER-MEMBRIVES, A., PADRÓS, F., & SALA, R. (2025). The round sardinella (Sardinella aurita Valenciennes, 1847) from the NW Mediterranean: a healthy and safe choice for human consumption. Mediterranean Marine Science, 26(1), 16–29. https://doi.org/10.12681/mms.38787
- Rubrik
- Research Article
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g. post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (preferably in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
Downloads
Keine Nutzungsdaten vorhanden.
Literaturhinweise
Abouel-Yazeed, A.M., 2013. Fatty acids profile of some marine water and freshwater fish. Journal of Arabian Aquaculture Society, 8 (2), 283-292.
Albo-Puigserver, M., Muñoz, A., Navarro, J., Coll, M., Pethybridge, H. et al., 2017. Ecological energetics of forage fish from the Mediterranean Sea: Seasonal dynamics and interspecific differences. Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 140, 74-82.
Albo-Puigserver, M., Borme, D., Coll, M., Tirelli, V., Palomera, I. et al., 2019. Trophic ecology of range-expanding round sardinella and resident sympatric species in the NW Mediterranean. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 620, 139-154.
Amoussou, N., Marengo, M., Iko Afé, O.H., Lejeune, P., Durieux, É.D.H. et al., 2022. Comparison of fatty acid profiles of two cultivated and wild marine fish from Mediterranean Sea. Aquaculture International, 30 (3), 1435-1452.
Belmonte, A., Muñoz, P., Santos-Echeandía, J., Romero, D., 2021. Tissue distribution of mercury and its relationship with selenium in Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus l.). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18 (24).
Ben Rebah, F., Abdelmouleh, A., Kammoun, W., Yezza, A., 2010. Seasonal variation of lipid content and fatty acid composition of Sardinella aurita from the Tunisian coast. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, 90 (3), 569-573.
Besada, V., Sericano, J.L., Schultze, F., 2014. An assessment of two decades of trace metals monitoring in wild mussels from the Northwest Atlantic and Cantabrian coastal areas of Spain, 1991-2011. Environment International, 71, 1-12.
Biton-Porsmoguer, S., Bou, R., Lloret, E., Alcaide, M., Lloret, J., 2020. Fatty acid composition and parasitism of European sardine (Sardina pilchardus) and anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) populations in the northern Catalan Sea in the context of changing environmental conditions. Conservation Physiology, 8 (1).
BOE, 1991. Límites de contenidos de metales pesados y métodos analíticos para la determinación de metales pesados para productos de la pesca y la acuicultura. Ministerio de Sanidad y Consumo, 195, 27153-5.
Bosch, A.C., O’Neill, B., Sigge, G.O., Kerwath, S.E., Hoffman, L.C., 2016. Heavy metals in marine fish meat and consumer health: a review. Journal of Science of Food and Agriculture, 96, 32-48.
Bush, A.O., Lafferty, K.D., Lotz, J.M., Shostak, A.W., 1997. Parasitology Meets Ecology on Its Own Terms: Margolis et al. Revisited. Journal of Parasitology, 83 (4).
Calder, P.C., 2015. Functional Roles of Fatty Acids and Their Effects on Human Health. Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, 39, 18S-32S.
Carrapiso, A.I., Timón, L.M., Petrón, J.M., Tejeda, J.F., García, C., 2000. In Situ Transesterification of Fatty Acids from Iberian Pig Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue. Meat Science, 56, 159-164.
Castro-González, M.I., Méndez-Armenta, M., 2008. Heavy metals: Implications associated to fish consumption. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology, 26 (3), 263-271.
Cipriani, P., Sbaraglia, G.L., Palomba, M., Giulietti, L., Bellisario, B. et al., 2018. Anisakis pegreffii (Nematoda: Anisakidae) in European anchovy Engraulis encrasicolus from the Mediterranean Sea: Fishing ground as a predictor of parasite distribution. Fisheries Research, 202, 59-68.
Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915 of 25 April 2023 on maximum levels for certain contaminants in food and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006. In: Official Journal of the European Union, pp. 103-157. http://data.europa. eu/eli/reg/2023/915/oj
Copat, C., Conti, G.O., Fallico, R., Sciacca, S., Ferrante, M., 2015. Heavy metals in fish from the Mediterranean Sea: potential impact on diet. p. 547-562. In: The Mediterranean diet. Preedy, V.R., Watson, R.R. (Eds). Academic Press, New York, USA.
Costa, S., Afonso, C., Bandarra, N.M., Gueifão, S., Castanheira, I., 2013. The emerging farmed fish species meagre (Argyrosomus regius): How culinary treatment affects nutrients and contaminants concentration and associated benefit-risk balance. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 60, 277-285.
Cresson, P., Fabri, M. C., Bouchoucha, M., Brach Papa, C., Chavanon, F., 2014. Mercury in organisms from the Northwestern Mediterranean slope: Importance of food sources. Science of the Total Environment, 497-498, 229-238.
Dalsgaard, J., John, M. St, Kattner, G., Müller-Navarra, D., Hagen, W., 2003. Fatty acid trophic markers in the pelagic marine environment.Advances in Marine Biology, 46, 227-318.
Desvilettes C., Bourdier G., Amblard C. Barth B., 1997. Use of fatty acids for the assessment of zooplankton grazing on bacteria, protozoans and microalgae. Freshwater Biology, 38, 629-637.
European Commission, 2023. Directorate-General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries. The EU fish market - 2023 edition. Publications Office of the European Union.
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), 2012. Scientific Opinion on the tolerable upper intake level of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and docosapentaenoicacid (DPA). EFSA Journal, 10, 2815.
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), 2014. Dietary exposure to inorganic arsenic in the European population. EFSA Journal, 12 (3).
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), 2017. Dietary Reference Values for Nutrients Summary Report. EFSA Support Public, 14, e15121.
EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), 2020. Scientific Opinion on the update of the risk assessment of nickel in food and drinking water. EFSA Journal, 18 (11), 6268.
FAO, 2023. The State of Mediterranean and Black Sea Fisheries 2023 - Special edition. General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean. Rome, 38pp.
FAO/WHO, 1989. National Research Council Recommended Dietary 626 Allowances (10th ed). National Academy Press, Washington, DC, USA.
FAO/WHO, 2010a. Expert Committee on Food Additives. Seventy- second meeting, Rome, 16-25 February 2010, Summary and Conclusions (Issued 16.03.10).
FAO/WHO, 2010b. Expert Committee on Food Additives. Seventy- third meeting, Geneva, 8-17 June 2010. Summary and Conclusions (Issued 24.06.10).
Feuilloley, G., Fromentin, J. M., Saraux, C., Irisson, J. O., Jalabert, L. et al., 2022. Temporal fluctuations in zooplankton size, abundance, and taxonomic composition since 1995 in the North Western Mediterranean Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 79 (3), 882-900.
Fullgrabe, L., Grosjean, P., Gobert, S., Lejeune, P., Leduc, M. et al., 2020. Zooplankton dynamics in a changing environment: A 13-year survey in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Marine Environmental Research, 159.
Garaffo, M.A., Vassallo-Agius, R., Nengas, Y., Lembo, E., Rando, R. et al., 2011. Fatty Acids Profile, Atherogenic (IA) and Thrombogenic (IT) Health Lipid Indices, of Raw Roe of Blue Fin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus L.) and Their Salted Product “Bottarga.” Food and Nutrition Sciences, 2 (7), 736-743.
Garrido, S., Rosa, R., Ben-Hamadou, R., Cunha, M. E., Chícharo, M.A. et al., 2008. Spatio-temporal variability in fatty acid trophic biomarkers in stomach contents and muscle of Iberian sardine (Sardina pilchardus) and its relationship with spawning. Marine Biology, 154 (6), 1053-1065.
Gibson, D.I., Jones, A., Bray, R.A. (Eds), 2002. Keys to the trematoda. Volume 1. CABI Publishing, London, UK, 521 pp.
Goffredo, E., Azzarito, L., Di Taranto, P., Mancini, M. E., Normanno, G. et al., 2019. Prevalence of anisakid parasites in fish collected from Apulia region (Italy) and quantification of nematode larvae in flesh. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 292, 159-170.
Golomazou, E.A., Athanassopoulou, F., Vagianou, S., Sabatakou, O., Tsantilas, H. et al., 2006. Diseases of White Sea Bream (Diplodus sargus L.) Reared in Experimental and Commercial Conditions in Greece. Turkish Journal of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, 30 (4).
Herceg Romanić, S., Jovanović, G., Mustać, B., Stojanović-Đinović, J., Stojić, A., 2021. Fatty acids, persistent organic pollutants, and trace elements in small pelagic fish from the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 170.
ICATMAR (Institut Català de Recerca per a la Governança del Mar), 2020. Distribució Geogràfica de l’Esforç Pesquer i Captures de la Flota d’encercalment Catalana (ICATMAR, 20-02), Barcelona, 23 pp.
ICATMAR (Institut Català de Recerca per a la Governança del Mar), 2023. Evolució de les Captures i els Preus de Venda del Sector Pesquer a Catalunya: Comparativa 2021-2022 (ICATMAR, 23-03), Barcelona, 184 pp.
Kris-Etherton, P.M. Krauss, R.M., 2020. Public health guidelines should recommend reducing saturated fat consumption as much as possible: YES. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 112(1), 13-18.
Li, N., Jia, M., Deng, Q., Wang, Z., Huang, F. et al., 2021. Effect of low-ratio n-6/n-3 PUFA on blood lipid level: a meta- analysis. Hormones, 20 (4), 697-706.
Litz, M.N.C., Brodeur, R.D., Emmett, R.L., Heppell, S.S., Rasmussen, R.S. et al., 2010. Effects of variable oceanographic conditions on forage fish lipid content and fatty acid composition in the northern California Current. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 405, 71-85.
Lloret, J., Shulman, G., Love, R.M., 2014. Condition and Health Indicators of Exploited Marine Fishes. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 244 pp.
Lo Turco, V., Di Bella, G., Furci, P., Cicero, N., Pollicino, G. et al., 2013. Heavy metals content by ICP-OES in Sarda sarda, Sardinella aurita and Lepidopus caudatus from the Strait of Messina (Sicily, Italy). Natural Product Research, 27 (6), 518-523.
Lomiri, S., Scacco, U., Mostarda, E., Andaloro, F., 2008. Size-related and temporal variation in the diet of the round sardinella, Sardinella aurita (Valenciennes, 1847), in the central Mediterranean Sea. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 24 (5), 539-545.
Mattiucci, S., Palomba, M., Cavallero, S., D’Amelio, S., 2022. Anisakiasis. p. 451-495. In: Helminth Infections and their Impact on Global Public Health. Bruschi, F. (Eds). Springer, Cham, Switzerland.
Merquiol L., 2022. Trophic Ecology of Gelatinous Zooplankton in the Gulf of Naples Ph.D. Thesis. The Open University, 374 pp.
Molversmyr, E., Devle, H. M., Naess-Andresen, C. F., Ekeberg, D., 2022. Identification and quantification of lipids in wild and farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), and salmon feed by GC-MS. Food Science and Nutrition, 10, 3117-3127.
Monier, M.N., Soliman, A.M., Al-Halani, A.A., 2023.The seasonal assessment of heavy metals pollution in water, sediments, and fish of grey mullet, red seabream, and sardine from the Mediterranean coast, Damietta, North Egypt. Regional Studies in Marine Science, 57.
Muns-Pujadas, L., Constenla, M., Dallarés, S., Padrós, F., 2024. Diving into the fish pathology of an important commercial fish species: the case of the European hake (Merluccius merluccius Linnaeus, 1758) in the northwest Mediterranean Sea. Journal of Fish Biology, 1-13.
Mustać, B., Sinovčić, G., 2012. Reproductive cycle of gilt sardine, Sardinella aurita, Valenciennes 1847, in the eastern middle Adriatic Sea. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 28 (1), 46-50.
Nauen, C.E., 1983. Compilation of Legal Limits for Hazardous Substances in Fish and Fishery Products. FAO Fisheries Circular, 764, 102.
Nunes, S., Latasa, M., Gasol, J. M., Estrada, M., 2018. Seasonal and interannual variability of phytoplankton community structure in a Mediterranean coastal site. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 592, 57-75.
Palanques, A., Puig, P., Guillén, J., 2022. The history of trace metal pollution in the sediments of the Catalan Sea. p. 24- 26. In: The ocean we want: inclusive and transformative ocean science.
Pelegrí, J.L., Gili, J.M., Martínez de Albéniz, M.V. (Eds). Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain.
Palomera, I., Olivar, M. P., Salat, J., Sabatés, A., Coll, M. et al., 2007. Small pelagic fish in the NW Mediterranean Sea: An ecological review. Progress in Oceanography, 74 (2- 3), 377-396.
Perugini, M., Visciano, P., Manera, M., Zaccaroni, A., Olivieri, V., 2014. Heavy metal (As, Cd, Hg, Pb, Cu, Zn, Se) concentrations in muscle and bone of four commercial fish caught in the central Adriatic Sea, Italy. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 186 (4), 2205-2213.
Pethybridge, H., Bodin, N., Arsenault-Pernet, E. J., Bourdeix, J. H., Brisset, B., et al., 2014. Temporal and inter-specific variations in forage fish feeding conditions in the NW Mediterranean: Lipid content and fatty acid compositional changes. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 512, 39-54.
Piras, M.C., Tedde, T., Garippa, G., Virgilio, S., Sanna, D., 2014. Molecular and epidemiological data on Anisakis spp. (Nematoda: Anisakidae) in commercial fish caught off northern Sardinia (western Mediterranean Sea). Veterinary Parasitology, 203 (1-2), 237-240.
Queiros, Q., Fromentin, J. M., Astruc, G., Bauer, R. K., Saraux, C., 2018. Dolphin predation pressure on pelagic and demersal fish in the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 603, 13-27.
Ramdani, S., Trilles, J. P., Ramdane, Z., 2020. Parasitic fauna of Sardinella aurita Valenciennes, 1847 from Algerian coast. Zoology and Ecology, 30 (2), 101-108.
Roca-Geronès, X., Segovia, M., Godínez-González, C., Fisa, R., Montoliu, I., 2020. Anisakis and Hysterothylacium species in Mediterranean and North-East Atlantic fishes commonly consumed in Spain: Epidemiological, molecular and morphometric discriminant analysis. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 325.
Rodríguez-Romeu, O., Soler-Membrives, A., Padrós, F., Dallarés, S., Carreras-Colom, E. et al., 2022. Assessment of the health status of the European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) in the NW Mediterranean Sea from an interdisciplinary approach and implications for food safety. Science of the Total Environment, 841, 156539.
Røjbek, M.C., Tomkiewicz, J., Jacobsen, C., Støttrup, J. G., 2014. Forage fish quality: Seasonal lipid dynamics of herring (Clupea harengus L.) and sprat (Sprattus sprattus L.) in the Baltic Sea. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 71 (1), 56-71.
Roncarati, A., Brambilla, G., Meluzzi, A., Iamiceli, A. L., Fanelli, R., 2012. Fatty acid profile and proximate composition of fillets from Engraulis encrasicholus, Mullus barbatus, Merluccius merluccius and Sarda sarda caught in Tyrrhenian, Adriatic and Ionian seas. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 28 (4), 545-552.
Rossi, S., Sabatés, A., Latasa, M., Reyes, E., 2006. Lipid biomarkers and trophic linkages between phytoplankton, zooplankton and anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) larvae in the NW Mediterranean. Journal of Plankton Research, 28 (6), 551-562.
Sabatés, A., Martín, P., Lloret, J., Raya, V., 2006. Sea warming and fish distribution: The case of the small pelagic fish, Sardinella aurita, in the western Mediterranean. Global Change Biology, 12 (11), 2209-2219.
Sainmont, J., Andersen, K.H., Varpe, Ø., Visser, A. W., 2014. Capital versus income breeding in a seasonal environment. American Naturalist, 184 (4), 466-476.
Sánchez-Marín, P., González-Fernández, M., Darriba, S., Santos- Echeandía, J., 2023. Distribution of metals in the queen scallop Aequipecten opercularis during a transplant experiment: Metal rich granules as drivers of Pb bioaccumulation. Science of the Total Environment, 897.
Santoro, M., Bellisario, B., Crocetta, F., Degli Uberti, B., Palomba, M.A., 2021. Molecular and ecological study of Grillotia (Cestoda: Trypanorhyncha) larval infection in small to mid-sized benthonic sharks in the Gulf of Naples, Mediterranean Sea. Ecology and Evolution, 11, 13744-13755.
Saraux, C., Van Beveren, E., Brosset, P., Queiros, Q., Bourdeix, J.H. et al., 2019. Small pelagic fish dynamics: A review of mechanisms in the Gulf of Lions. Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 159, 52-61.
Sauliute, G., Svecevičius, G., 2015. Heavy metal interactions during accumulation via direct route in fish: A review. Zoology and Ecology, 25 (1), 77-86.
Simopoulos, A.P., 2002. The importance of the ratio of omega- 6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 56 (8), 365-379.
Simopoulos, A.P., 2008. The omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio, genetic variation, and cardiovascular disease. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 17 (1), 131.
Siri-Tarino, P. W., Chiu, S., Bergeron, N., Krauss, R.M., 2015. Saturated Fats Versus Polyunsaturated Fats Versus Carbohydrates for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention and Treatment. Annual Review of Nutrition, 35 (1), 517-543.
Som, C., Radhakrishnan, C.K., 2013. Seasonal variation in the fatty acid composition of Sardinella longiceps and Sardinella fimbriata: Implications for nutrition and pharmaceutical industry. Indian Journal of GeoMarine Sciences, 42 (2).
Storelli, M.M., Giacominelli-Stuffler, R., Storelli, A., D’Addabbo, R., Palermo, C. et al., 2003. Survey of total mercury and methylmercury levels in edible fish from the Adriatic Sea. Food Additives and Contaminants, 20 (12), 1114-1119.
Strobel, C., Jahreis, G., Kuhnt, K., 2012. Survey of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish and fish products. Lipids Health and Disease, 11, 1-10.
Tacon, A. G. J., Lemos, D., Metian, M., 2020. Fish for Health: Improved Nutritional Quality of Cultured Fish for Human Consumption. Reviews in Fisheries Science and Aquaculture, 28 (4), 449-458.
Taşbozan, O. Gökçe, M.A., 2017. Fatty Acids in Fish. p. 143-157. In: Fatty Acids. Catala, A. (Ed.). IntechOpen, London, UK.
Tepe, Y., 2009. Metal concentrations in eight fish species from Aegean and Mediterranean Seas. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 159 (1-4), 501-509.
Tsikliras, A.C, Antonopoulou, E., 2006. Reproductive biology of round sardinella (Sardinella aurita) in the north-eastern Mediterranean. Scientia Marina, 70, 281-290.
Tsikliras, A.C., 2008. Climate-related geographic shift and sudden population increase of a small pelagic fish (Sardinella aurita) in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Marine Biology Research, 4 (6), 477-481.
Ulbricht, T.L., Southgate, D.A.T., 1991. Coronary heart disease: seven dietary factors. Lancet, 338 (8773), 985-992.
Usydus, Z., Szlifder-Richert, J., Adamczyk, M., 2012. Variations in proximate composition and fatty acid profiles of Baltic sprat (Sprattus sprattus balticus). Food Chemistry, 130 (1), 97-103.
Vila-Belmonte, M., Bou, R., Lloret, E., Lloret, J., 2024. Fatty acid content and profile of round sardinella (Sardinella aurita), an expanding thermophilic species in the NW Mediterranean. Mediterranean Marine Science, 25(2), 300-310.
WHO, 2023. Healthy diet. World Health Organization. https:// www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/healthy-diet (Accessed 25 June 2024).
Wiktorowska-Owczarek, A., Berezińska, M., Nowak, J.Z., 2015. PUFAs: Structures, metabolism and functions. Advances in Clinical and Experimental Medicine, 24 (6), 931-941.
Xu, H., Turchini, G.M., Francis, D.S., Liang, M., Mock, T.S., Rombenso, A., Ai, Q., 2020. Are fish what they eat? A fatty acid’s perspective. Progress in Lipid Research, 80, 101064.
Zárate, R., el Jaber‐Vazdekis, N., Tejera, N., Pérez, J. A., Rodríguez, C., 2017. Significance of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human health. Clinical and Translational Medicine, 6 (1).
Zeng, D., Mai, K., Ai, Q., Milley, J.E., Lall, S.P., 2010. Lipid and fatty acid compositions of cod (Gadus morhua), haddock (Melanogrammus aeglefinus) and halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus). Journal of Ocean University of China, 9 (4), 381-388.
