Persistent viral infections in farm and companion animals: mechanisms of establishment and maintenance of viral persistence

PDF
Published: Dec 6, 2017
DOI: https://doi.org/10.12681/jhvms.15146
Keywords:
Persistent viral infections mechanisms of establishment of viral persistence prevention and control measures farm animals companion animals
M. PAPANASTASOPOULOU (Μ. ΠΑΠΑΝΑΣΤΑΣΟΠΟΥΛΟΥ)
Laboratory of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Aristotle University
Abstract

In persistent viral infections the responsible virus is not eliminated by the host's immune system, but it is maintained in infected cells for months, years or lifetime and it is excreted periodically or continuously. The carrier animal may either appear healthy or show clinical signs. The epizootiologic importance of persistent infections is of compelling interest, since the asymptomatic carriers become a permanent source of viral dissemination that can transport the virus across long-distances and reintroduce it into a given herd, region or country, where the disease had been eliminated. Moreover, a persistent viral infection may be reactivated and cause recrudescent episodes of disease, may lead to immunopathologic or neoplastic disease in the individual host and yet may be transmitted to other animals or to the humans via contaminated materials of animal origin. The economic losses are significant at both farm and national level. Fifty four RNA or DNA viruses induce persistent infections in farm and companion animals. In particular, 14 viruses cause persistent infections in bovines, 7 in small ruminants, 9 in swine, 11 in equines, 8 in cats and 5 in dogs. The majority of these infections are caused by retroviruses and herpesviruses. For a virus to establish and maintain persistent infection, it should have limited cytolytic action, it should be able to maintain its genome within host cells over time and to evade the immune defence mechanisms of the host. The preventive measures are largely based either on the immunization of susceptible animals or on the eradication of the disease by stamping-out policy. The currendy available vaccines are inactivated or live attenuated. Most of them are prepared by conventional methods, but they also exist those that are biotechnologicaUy engineered, such as vector vaccines marker vaccines or subunit vaccines. A major advantage related to the use of marker vaccines is that vaccinated animals can potentially be differentiated from the naturally infected ones by this process.

Article Details
  • Section
  • Review Articles

Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:

· Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.

· Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g. post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.

· Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (preferably in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.

Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Addie DD, Jarett Ο (2001). Use of a reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction for monitoring the shedding of feline Coronavirus by healthy cats. Vet Ree, 148: 649-653.
Allison RW, Hoover EA (2003). Covert vertical transmission of feline immunodeficiency virus. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses, 19:421-434.
Amills M, Ramiya V, Norimine J, Olmstead CA, Lewin HA (2002). Reduced IL-2 and IL-4 mRNA expression in CD4+ Τ cells from bovine leukemia virus-infected cows with persistent lymphocytosis. Virology, 304: 1-9.
Balasuriya UB, Hedges JF, Smalley VL, Navarrette A, McCallum W, Timoney PJ, Snijder EJ, MacLachlan NJ (2004). Genetic characterization of equine arterivirus during persistent infection of stallions. J Gen Virol., 85: 373-390.
Becher Ρ, Ramirez RA, Orlch M, Rosales SC, König M, Schweizer M, Stalder H, Schirrmeier H, Thiel H-J (2003). Genetic and antigenic characterization of novel pestiviruses genotypes: implications for classification. Virology, 311: 96-104.
Belknap EB (2002). Diseases of the respiratory system. In: Sheep and Goat Medicine. DG Pugh (ed), W.B. Saunders Co, Philadelphia, pp: 107-123.
Bendfeldt S, Grummer B, Greiser-Wilke J (2003). No caspase activation, but overexpression of Bcl-2 in bovine cells infected with non-cytopathic bovine virus diarrhoea virus. Vet Microbiol., 96: 313-326.
Brock KV (2003). The persistence of bovine viral diarrhea virus. Biologicals, 31: 133-135.
Carmicael LE, Greene CE (1998). Canine herpesvirus infection. In: Infectious Diseases of the Dog and Cat. CE Greene (ed), 2nd edn., W.B. Saunders Co, Philadelphia, pp: 28-32.
Decrosiers RC (2001). Non-human lentiviruses. In: Fields Virology, Vol 2. DM Knipe, PM Howley et al (eds), 4th edn., Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp: 2095-2116.
DiMaio D, Coen DM (2001). Replication strategies of DNA viruses. In: Fields Virology, Vol 1. DM Knipe, PM Howley et al (eds), 4th edn., Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp: 119-130.
Ferrari M, Mettenleiter TC, Romanelli MG, Cabassi E, Corradi A, DiMas Ν, Suini R (2000). A comparative study of Pseudorabies virus (PRV) strains with defects in thymidine kinase and glycoprotein genes. J Comp Pathol., 123:152-163.
Flynn JN, Dunham SP, Watson V, Jarett Ο (2002). Longitudinal analysis of feline leukemia virus-specific cytotoxic Τ lymphocytes: correlation with recovery from infection. J Virol., 76: 2306-2315.
Foote CE, Love DN, Gilkerson JR, Whalley JM (2002). Serological responses of mares and weanlings following vaccination with aninactivated whole virus equine herpesvirus 1 and equine herpesvirus 4 vaccine. Vet Microbiol., 88: 13-25.
Fray MD, Paton DJ, Alenius S (2000). The effects of bovine viral diarrhoea virus on cattle reproduction in relation to disease control. Anim Reprod Sci., 60-61: 615-627.
Gaskell R, Willoughby Κ (1999). Herpesviruses of carnivores. Vet Microbiol., 69: 73-88.
Giangaspero M, Vacirca G, Harasawa R, Büttner M, Panuccio A, de Giuli Morghen C, Zanetti A, Belloli A, Verhulst A (2001). Genotypes of pestivirus RNA detected in live virus vaccines for human use. J Vet Med Sci., 63: 723-733.
Gomes LI, Rocha MA, Souza JG, Costa EA, Barbarosa-Stancioli EF (2003). Bovine herpesvirus 5 (BoHV-5) in bull semen: amplification and sequences analysis of the US4 gene. Vet Res Commun., 27: 495-504.
Guthrie AJ, Howell PG, Hedges JF, Bosman AM, Balasuriya UB, McCollum WH, Timoney PJ, MacLachlan NJ (2003). Lateral transmission of equine arteritis virus among Lippizzaner stallions in South Africa. Equine Vet J., 35: 596-600.
Hamilton VT, Stone DM, Cantor GH (2003). Translocation of the Β cell receptor to lipid rafts is inhibited by cells from BLVinfected, persistent lymphocytosis cattle. Virology, 315:135-147.
Herrewegh AA, Mähler M, Hedrich HJ, Haagmans BL, Egberink HF, Horzinek MC, Rottier PJM, de Groof RJ (1997). Persistence and evolution of feline Coronavirus in a closed catbreeding colony. Virology, 234: 349-363.
Hindson JC, Winter AC (2002). Manual of Sheep Diseases. 2nd edn., Blackwell Science, Oxford UK, chap 15, pp: 137-157.
Hofmann-Lehmann R, Huder JB, Gruber S, Boretti F, Sigrist Β, Lut A (2001). Feline leukaemia provirus load during the course of experimental infection and naturally infected cats. J Gen Virol., 82: 1589-1596.
Horter DC, Pogranichniy RM, Chang C-C, Evans RB, Yoonk K-J, Zimmerman J (2002). Characterization of the carrier state in porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection. Vet Microbiol., 86: 213-228.
Hötzel I, Kumpula-McWhirter N, Cheevers WP (2002). Rapid evolution of two discrete regions of the caprine arthritisencephalitis virus envelope surface glycoprotein during persistent infection. Virus Res., 84: 17-25.
Jarett Ο (1999). Strategies of retrovirus survival in the cat. Vet Microbiol., 69: 99-107.
Joshi A, Vahlenkamp TW, Garg H, Tompkins WAF, Tompkins MB (2004). Preferential replication of FIV in activated CD4 + CD25 + Τ cells independent of cellular proliferation. Virology, 321: 307-322.
Kahrs RF (2001a). Viral Diseases of Cattle. 2nd edn., Iowa State University Press/Ames, USA, chap 12, pp: 103-112.
Kahrs RF (2001b). Viral Diseases of Cattle. 2nd edn., Iowa State University Press/Ames, USA, chap 18, pp: 159-170.
Kahrs RF (2001c). Viral Diseases of Cattle. 2nd edn., Iowa State University Press/Ames, USA, chap 17, pp: 151-157.
Kahrs RF (2001d). Viral Diseases of Cattle. 2nd edn., Iowa State University Press/Ames, USA, chap 13, pp: 113-126.
Kreutz LC, Johnson RP, Seal BS (1998). Phenotypic and genotypic variation of feline calicivirus during persistent infection of cats. Vet Microbiol., 59: 229-236.
Lehmann D, Sodoyer R, Leterme S, Grevât D (2002). Improvement serological discrimination between herpesvirus-infected animals and animals vaccinated with marker vaccines. Vet Microbiol., 86:59-68.
Leroux C, Craigo JK, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC (2001). Equine infectious anemia virus genomic evolution in progressor and non-progressor ponies. J Virol., 75: 4570-4583.
Meertens N, Stoffel ΜΗ, Cherpillod Ρ, Wittek R, Vandevelde M, Zurbriggen A (2003). Mechanism of reduction of virus release and cell-cell fusion in persistent canine distemper virus infection. Acta Neuropathol., 106: 303-310.
Meli M, Kipar A, Müller C, Jenal K, Gönczi E, Borei Ν, Gunn-Moore D, Chalmers S, Lin F, Reinacher M, Lutz H (2004). High viral load despite absence of clinical and pathological findings in cats experimentally infected with feline Coronavirus (FCoV) type I and in naturally FCoV-infected cats. J Feline Med Surg., 6:69-81.
Murphy FA, Gibbs EPJ, Horzinek MC, Studdert MJ (1999a). Veterinary Virology. 3rd edn., Academic Press, San Diego, chap 9,pp: 145-159.
Murphy FA, Gibbs EPJ, Horzinek MC, Studdert MJ (1999b). Veterinary Virology. 3rd edn., Academic Press, San Diego, chap 5, pp: 81-92.
Murphy FA, Gibbs EPJ, Horzinek MC, Studdert MJ (1999c). Veterinary Virology. 3rd edn., Academic Press, San Diego, chap 39, pp: 556-568.
Murphy FA, Gibbs EPJ, Horzinek MC, Studdert MJ (1999d). Veterinary Virology. 3rd edn., Academic Press, San Diego, chap 23, pp: 364-389.
Murphy FA, Gibbs EPJ, Horzinek MC, Studdert MJ (1999e). Veterinary Virology. 3rd edn., Academic Press, San Diego, chap 18, pp: 301-325.
Murphy FA, Gibbs EPJ, Horzinek MC, Studdert MJ (1999f). Veterinary Virology. 3rd edn., Academic Press, San Diego, chap 33, pp:495-508.
Murphy FA, Gibbs EPJ, Horzinek MC, Studdert MJ (1999g). Veterinary Virology. 3rd edn., Academic Press, San Diego, chap 10, pp: 161-176.
Murtaugh MP, Xiao Z, Zuckermann F (2002). Immunological responses of swine to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection. Viral Immunol., 15: 533-547.
Palmarini M, Mura M, Spencer TE (2004). Endogenous betaretrovirus of sheep: teaching new lessons in retroviral interference and adaptation. J Gen Virol., 85: 1-13.
Papanastassopoulou M (1997). Recent data from the application of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in Veterinary Virology. Hellenic Virology, 2: 114-122.
Pedersen NC, Sato R, Foley JE, Poland AM (2004). Common virus infections in cats, before and after being placed in shelters, with emphasis on feline enteric Coronavirus. J Feline Med Surg., 6: 83-88.
Perez SE, Bretschneider G, Leunda MR, Osorio EA, Flores EF, Odeon AC (2002). Primary infection, latency and reactivation of bovine herpesvirus type 5 in the bovine nervous system. Vet Pathol., 39: 437-444.
Perng G-C, Maguen B, Jin L, Mott KR, Osorio N, Slanina SM et al (2002). A gene capable of blocking apoptosis can substitute for the herpes simplex virus type 1 latency-associated transcript gene and restore wild-type reactivation levels. J Virol., 76:1224-1235.
Peterhans E, Jungi TW, Schweizer M (2003). BVDV and innate immunity. Biologicals, 31: 107-111.
Poulet H, Bruneis S, Soulier M, Leroy V, Goutebrose S, Chappuis G (2000). Comparison between acute oral/respiratory and chronic stomatitis/gingivitis isolates of feline calicivirus: pathogenicity, antigenic profile and cross-neutralization studies. Arch Virol., 145: 243-261.
Radostits OM, Gay CC, Blood DC, Hinchcliff KW (2000a). Veterinary Medicine: A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Goats and Horses. 9th edn., W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, chap 21, pp: 1019-1134.
Radostits OM, Gay CC, Blood DC, Hinchcliff KW (2000b). Veterinary Medicine: A Textbook of the Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Goats and Horses. 9th edn., W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, chap 22, pp: 1135-1259.
Reilly LK, Baird AN, Pugh DG (2002). Diseases of the musculoskeletal system. In: Sheep and Goat Medicine. DG Pugh (ed), W.B. Saunders Co, Philadelphia, pp: 223-254.
Roizman B, Pellett Ph (2001). The family Herpesviridae. A brief introduction. In: Fields Virology, Vol 2. DM Knipe, PM Howley et al (eds), 4th edn., Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp: 2381-2395.
Rottier PJM (1999). The molecular dynamics of feline coronaviruses. Vet Microbiol., 69: 117-125.
Rowland RRR, Lawson S, Rossow K, Benfield DA (2003). Lymphoid tissue tropism of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus replication during persistent infection of pigs originally exposed to virus in utero. Vet Microbiol., 96: 219-235.
Sellon RK (1998). Feline immunodeficiency virus infection. In: Infectious Diseases of the Dog and Cat. CE Greene (ed), 2nd edn., W.B. Saunders Co, Philadelphia, pp: 84-96.
Shin T, Acland H (2001). Tissue distribution of bovine viral diarrhea virus antigens in persistently infected cattle. J Vet Sci., 2: 81-84.
Snijder EJ, Meulenberg JJM (2001). Arteriviruses. In: Fields Virology, Vol 1. DM Knipe, PM Howley et al (eds), 4th edn., Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp: 1205-1220.
Spyrou V, Koptopoulos G, Papanastassopoulou M, Artopiou M (1999). A preliminary serological investigation of equine herpes and influenza viruses. Hellenic Virology, 4: 40-45.
Spyrou V, Papanastassopoulou M, Psychas V, Koumbati M, Vlemmas J, Koptopoulos G (2003). Equine infectious anemia in mules: virus isolation and pathogenicity studies. Vet Microbiol., 95: 49-59.
Stettler M, Beck K, Wagner A, Vandevelde M, Zurbriggen A (1997). Determinants of persistence in canine distemper virus. Vet Microbiol., 57: 83-93.
Straub OC (2001). Advances in BHV1 (IBR) research. Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr., 108: 419-422.
Straub OC (2004). Maedi-Visna virus infection in sheep: History and present knowledge. Comp Immun Microbiol Infect Dis., 27: 1-5.
Tyler KL, Nathanson Ν (2001). Pathogenesis of viral infections. In: Fields Virology, Vol 1. DM Knipe, PM Howley et al (eds), 4th edn., Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp: 199-230.
Vogel FS, Caron L, Flores EF, Weiblen R, Winkelmann ER, Mayer S, Bastos RG (2003). Distribution of bovine herpesvirus type 5 DNA in the central nervous system of latently, experimentally infected calves. J Clin Microbiol., 41: 4512-4520.
Winkler MTC, Doster A, Sur JH, Jones C (2002). Analysis of bovine trigeminal ganglia following infection with bovine herpesvirus 1. Vet Microbiol., 86: 139-155.
Wessman SJ, Levings RL (1999). Benefits and risks due to animal serum used in cell culture production. Dev Bio Stand., 99: 308.
Yakobson B, Brenner J, Ungar-Waron H, Trainin Ζ (2000). Cellular immune response cytokine expression during initial stage of bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection determines the disease progression to persistent lymphocytosis. Comp Immun Microbiol Infect Dis., 23: 197-208.
York DF, Querat G (2003). A history of ovine pulmonary adenocarcinoma (jaagsiekte) and experiments leading to the detection of the JSRV nucleotide sequence. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol., 275: 1-23.
Yoshikawa Τ (2000). The mechanisms for latency and reactivation of alphaherpesvi-ridae. Nippon Rinso, 58: 807-814.