Κοροναϊός του σκύλου: ένας όχι ‘αθώος’ ιός


Δημοσιευμένα: Dec 18, 2017
Λέξεις-κλειδιά:
διάρροια εμβόλια κοροναϊός σκύλος
V. NTAFIS (Β. ΝΤΑΦΗΣ)
M. PAPANASTASSOPOULOU (Μ. ΠΑΠΑΝΑΣΤΑΣΟΠΟΥΛΟΥ)
E. XYLOURI (E.ΞΥΛΟΥΡΗ)
Περίληψη

Ο Κοροναϊός του σκύλου αποτελεί σημαντικό αιτιολογικό παράγοντα οξείας διάρροιας σε σκύλους, ιδιαίτερα σε κουτάβια. Κύριο χαρακτηριστικό του εν λόγω ιού, όπως και όλων των μελών της οικογένειας των κοροναϊών, είναι η έντονη γενετική ποικιλότητα, λόγω της συχνής εμφάνισης μεταλλάξεων και γενετικών ανασυνδυασμών. Αναφέρονται δύο τύποι Κοροναϊού του σκύλου, ο τύπος Ι και ο τύπος ΙΙ. Ο τύπος Ι περιλαμβάνει στελέχη, τα οποία εμφανίζουν μεγάλη γενετική ομοιότητα με στελέχη του Κοροναϊού της γάτας, ενώ στον τύπο ΙΙ ταξινομούνται τα ‘κλασικά’ στελέχη του ιού. Επιπλέον, τα στελέχη που ανήκουν στον τύπο ΙΙ διακρίνονται σε δύο υποτύπους, τον IIa, στον οποίο κατατάσσονται τα ‘κλασικά’ στελέχη, και τον ΙΙb, στον οποίο ανήκουν στελέχη που αναδύθηκαν μετά από ανασυνδυασμό του Κοροναϊού του σκύλου με τον Ιό της μεταδοτικής γαστρεντερίτιδας των χοίρων. Η λοίμωξη από Κοροναϊό του σκύλου συνήθως εκδηλώνεται με ανορεξία, κατάπτωση, λήθαργο και γαστρεντερικά συμπτώματα, όπως έμετο, ειδικά τις πρώτες δύο ημέρες, και διάρροια. Το ποσοστό θνητότητας είναι χαμηλό, ιδιαίτερα σε ενήλικες σκύλους, οι οποίοι συνήθως δεν εμφανίζουν συμπτώματα. Τα περισσότερα ζώα συνήθως αναρρώνουν μετά από 7-10 ημέρες. Η συνύπαρξη μολύνσεων από άλλους ιούς, βακτήρια ή παράσιτα μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε εκδήλωση πιο βαριάς κλινικής εικόνας.


Σήμερα, έχει επιβεβαιωθεί η παγκόσμια εξάπλωση του Κοροναϊού του σκύλου και η συσχέτισή του με κρούσματα συνήθως ήπιας, οξείας διάρροιας. Ωστόσο, τα τελευταία χρόνια έχουν ανιχνευτεί, στην Αυστραλία και την Ευρώπη, στελέχη, τα οποία σχετίστηκαν με την πρόκληση κρουσμάτων επιζωοτικής θανατηφόρου γαστρεντερίτιδας. Η ανάλυση του γονιδιώματος αυτών των στελεχών ανέδειξε χαμηλό ποσοστό ομοιότητας με τα στελέχη αναφοράς, οδηγώντας στο συμπέρασμα πώς παραλλαγμένα στελέχη Κοροναϊού του σκύλου φαίνεται να σχετίζονται με εκδήλωση έντονων κλινικών συμπτωμάτων. Επιπλέον, σε αντίθεση με τη θεωρία που υποστήριζε ότι η λοίμωξη από Κοροναϊό του σκύλου περιοριζόταν στο πεπτικό σύστημα, την τελευταία δεκαετία απομονώθηκαν στελέχη ιδιαίτερου ενδιαφέροντος, με δυνατότητα να διαπερνούν τον εντερικό φραγμό, προκαλώντας συστηματική λοίμωξη στα ζώα, με συνήθως θανατηφόρα κατάληξη. Τα στελέχη αυτά προσέλκυσαν γρήγορα το ενδιαφέρον, με την έρευνα να εστιάζεται στην πρόκληση πειραματικών μολύνσεων, στην ανίχνευση γενετικών δεικτών διαφοροποίησής τους από τα κοινά στελέχη, καθώς και στην ανεύρεση μέσων προφύλαξης έναντι αυτών. Η ανίχνευση στελεχών που διαπερνούν τον εντερικό φραγμό σε πολλές  περιοχές της Ευρώπης (περιλαμβανομένης της Ελλάδας) υποδηλώνει την κυκλοφορία νέων βιοτύπων του ιού. Η έντονη γενετική ποικιλότητα των στελεχών, η ύπαρξη σύμμικτων μολύνσεων και η έλλειψη απόλυτα διασταυρούμενων αντιδράσεων μεταξύ των τύπων και των υποτύπων του ιού εγείρουν ερωτηματικά σχετικά με την αποτελεσματικότητα των υπαρχόντων εμβολίων.

Λεπτομέρειες άρθρου
  • Ενότητα
  • Review Articles
Λήψεις
Τα δεδομένα λήψης δεν είναι ακόμη διαθέσιμα.
Αναφορές
Adams MJ, Carstens EB (2012) Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of NViruses. Arch Virol 157:1411-1422.
Appel MJ (1987) Canine coronavirus. In: (ed.: Appel MJ) Virus Ninfections of carnivores. Elsevier Science Publishers, The Netherlands, pp. 115–122.
Appel MJG, Cooper BJ, Greisen H, Scott F, Carmichael LE (1979) Canine viral enteritis. I. Status report on corona- and parvo-like
viral enteritides. Cornell Vet 69:123-133.
Bandai C, Ishiguro S, Masuya N, Hohdatsu T, Mochizuki M (1999) Canine Coronavirus Infections in Japan: Virological and
Epidemiological Aspects. J Vet Med Sci 61(7):731–736.
Barlough JE, Stoddart CA, Soresso GP, Jocabson RH, Scott FW (1994) Experimental inoculation of cats with canine coronavirus and
subsequent challenge with feline infectious peritonitis virus. Lab Anim Sci 34:592-597.
Balasuriya UB R, Stott JL (2004) Coronaviridae and Arteriviridae. In: (eds.: Hirsch DC, MacLachlan NJ, Walker RL) Veterinary microbiology, 2nd edn. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, IA, pp. 383-397.
Binn, LN., Lazar, EC., Keenan, KP., Huxsoll, DL., Marchwicki, RH., Strano, AJ., 1974. Recovery and characterization of a coronavirus from military dogs with diarrhea. Proceedings of the 78th Annual Meeting of the U.S. Animal Health Association (Roanoke, Virginia), pp. 359 366.
Buonavoglia C, Decaro N, Martella V, Elia G, Campolo M, Desario C, Castagnaro M, Tempesta M (2006) Canine coronavirus highly pathogenic for dogs. Emerg Infect Dis 12:492-494.
Carmichael LE, Binn LN (1981) New enteric viruses in the dog. Adv Vet Sci Comp Med 25:1-37.
Carstens EB (2010) Ratification vote on taxonomic proposals to the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Arch Virol 155:133-146.
Davidson WR, Appel MJ, Doster GL, Baker OE, Brown JF (1992) Diseases and parasites of red foxes, gray foxes, and coyotes from commercial sources selling to fox-chasing enclosures. J Wildlife Dis 28:581-589.
de Groot RJ, Baker SC, Baric R, Enjuanes L, Gorbalenya AE, Holmes KV, Perlman S, Poon L, Rottier PJM, Talbot PJ, Woo PCY, Ziebuhr J (2011) Family Coronaviridae. In: (eds: King, AMQ, Lefkowitz E, Adams MJ, Carstens, EB) Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, Elsevier, Oxford, pp. 806-828.
de Groot-Mijnes JD, van Dun JM, van der Most RG, de Groot RJ (2005) Natural history of a recurrent feline coronavirus infection and the role of cellular immunity in survival and disease. J Virol 79:1036-1044.
de Haan CAM, Masters PS, Shen X, Weiss S, Rottier PJM (2002) The group-specific murine coronavirus genes are not essential, but their deletion, be reverse genetics, is attenuating in the natural host. Virology 296:177-189.
Decaro N, Campolo M, Lorusso A, Desario C, Mari V, Colaianni ML, Elia G, Martella V, Buonavoglia C (2008) Experimental infection of dogs with a novel strain of canine coronavirus causing systemic disease and lymphopenia. Vet Microbiol 128:253-260.
Decaro N, Cordonnier N, Demeter Z, Egberink H, Elia G, Grellet A, Le Poder S, Mari V, Martella V, Ntafis V, von Reitzenstein M, Rottier PJ, Rusvai M, Shields S, Xylouri E, Xu Z, Buonavoglia C (2013) European surveillance for pantropic canine coronavirus. J Clin Microbiol 51:83-88.
Decaro N, Mari V, Campolo M, Lorusso A, Camero M., Elia G, Martella NV, Cordioli P, Enjuanes L, Buonavoglia C (2009) Recombinant canine coronavirus related to transmissible gastroenteritis virus Nof swine are circulating in dogs. J Virol 83(3):1532-1537.
Decaro N, Mari V, Elia G, Addie DD, Camero M, Lucente MS, Martella V, Buonavoglia C (2010) Recombinant canine coronaviruses in dogs, Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 16:41-47.
Decaro N, Mari V, Sciarretta R, Colae V, Losurdo M, Catella C, Elia G, Martella V, Del Giudice G, Buonavoglia C (2011) Immunogenicity and protective efficacy in dogs of an MF59TMadjuvanted vaccine against recombinant canine/porcine coronavirus. Vaccine 29:2018-2023.
Decaro N, Martella V, Elia G, Campolo M, Desario C, Cirone F, Tempesta M, Buonavoglia C (2007) Molecular characterization of the virulent canine coronavirus CB/05 strain. Virus Res 125:54-60.
Decaro N, Martella V, Ricci D, Elia G, Desario C, Campolo M, Cavaliere N, Trani LD, Tempesta M, Buonavoglia C (2005) Genotype-specific fluorogenic RT-PCR assays for the detection Nand the quantitation of canine coronavirus type I and type II RNA in faecal samples of dogs. J Virol Methods 130:72-78.
Decaro N, Pratelli A, Campolo M, Elia G, Martella V, Tempesta M, Buonavoglia C (2004a) Quantitation of canine coronavirus RNA in the faeces of dogs by TaqMan RT-PCR. J Virol Methods 119:145-150.
Decaro N, Pratelli A, Tinelli A, Martella V, Camero M, Buonavoglia D, Tempesta M, Caroli AM, Buonavoglia C (2004b) Fecal Immunoglobulin A Antibodies in Dogs Infected or Vaccinated with Canine Coronavirus. Clin Diagn Lab Immun 11:102-105.
Elia G, Decaro N, Martella V, Lorusso E, Mari V, Lucente MS, Cordioli C, Buonavoglia C (2010) An ELISA based on recombinant
spike protein S for the detection of antibodies to transmissible gastroenteritis virus of swine-like canine coronavirus. J Virol Methods 163:309-312.
Elia G, Decaro N, Tinelli A, Martella V, Pratelli A, Buonavoglia C (2002) Evaluation of antibody response to canine coronavirus infection in dogs by western blotting analysis. New Microbiol 25:275-280.
Enjuanes L, Brian D, Cavanagh D, Holmes K, Lai MMC, Laude H, Masters P, Rottier PJM, Siddell SG, Spaan WJM, Taguchi F, Talbot P (2000) Coronaviridae. In: (eds.: van Regenmortel MHV, Fauquet CM, Bishop DHL, Carstens EB, Estes MK, Lemon SM, Maniloff J, Mayo MA, McGeoch DJ, Pringle CR, Wickner RB) Virus Taxonomy. Classification and Nomenclature of Viruses. Academic Press, New York, pp. 835–849.
Escutenaire S, Isaksson M, Renstrom LH, Klingeborn B, Buonavoglia C, Berg M, Belak S, Thoren P (2007) Characterization of divergent and atypical canine coronaviruses from Sweden. Arch Virol 152:1507-1514.
Evermann JF, Abbott JR, Han S (2005) Canine coronavirus-associated puppy mortality without evidence of concurrent canine parvovirus infection. J Vet Diagn Invest 17:610-614.
Gao FS, Hu GX, Xia X, Gao YW, Bai YD, Zou XH (2009) Isolation and identification of a canine coronavirus strain from giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). J Vet Sci 10:261-263.
Jia W, Karaka K, Parrish CR, Naqi SA (1995) A novel variant of avian bronchitis virus resulting from recombination among 3 different strains. Arch Virol 140:259-271.
Keenan KP, Jervis HR, Marchwicki RH, Binn LN (1976) Intestinal infection of neonatal dogs with canine coronavirus 1–71: studies by virologic, histologic, histochemical and immunofluorescent techniques. Am J Vet Res 37:247–256.
Kipar A, May H, Menger S, Weber M, Leukert W, Reinacher M (2005) Morphologic features and development of granulomatous vasculitis in feline infectious peritonitis. Veterinary Pathol 42:321-330.
Lai MMC, Holmes KV (2001) Coronaviridae: the viruses and their replication. In: (eds.: Knipe DM, Howley PM) Fields Virology, 4th edn. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, pp. 1163– 1185.
Larson DJ, Morehouse LG, Solorzano RF, Kinden DA (1979) Transmissible gastroenteritis in neonatal dogs: Experimental intestinal infection with transmissible gastroenteritis virus. Am J Vet Res 40:477-486.
Lissenberg A, Vrolijk MM, van Vliet AL, Langereis MA, de Groot- Mijnes JD, Rottier PJ, de Groot RJ (2005) Luxury at a cost? Recombinant mouse hepatitis viruses expressing the accessory hemaglutinin esterase protein display reduced fitness in vitro. J Virol 79:15054-15063.
Lorusso A, Decaro N, Schellen P, Rottier PJ, Buonavoglia C, Haijema BJ, de Groot RJ (2008) Gain, Preservation and Loss of a Group 1a Coronavirus Accessory Glycoprotein. J Virol 82:10312-10317.
Marinaro M, Mari V, Bellacicco AL, Tarsitano E, Elia G, Losurdo M, Rezza G, Buonavoglia C, Decaro N (2010) Long-lasting depletion of circulating CD4? T lymphocytes and acute monocytosis after pantropic canine coronavirus infection in dogs. Virus Res 152:73–78.
Masters PS (2006) The molecular biology of coronaviruses. Adv Virus Res 66:193-292.
McArdle F, Bennet M, Gaskell RM, Tennant B, Kelly DF, Gaskell CJ (1992) Induction and enhancement of feline infectious peritonitis by canine coronavirus. Am J Vet Res 53:1500-1506.
McCaw DL, Hoskins JD (2006) Canine Viral Enteritis. In: (ed.: Greene CE) Infectious Diseases of the dog and cat, 3rd edn.. Saunders Elsevier, Missouri, pp. 63-73.
Naylor MJ, Harrison GA, Monckton RP, McOrist S, Lehrbach PR, Deane EM (2001a) Identification of canine coronavirus strains from faeces by S gene nested PCR and molecular characterization of a new Australian isolate. J Clin Microbiol 39:1036–1041.
Naylor MJ, Monckton RP, Lehrbach PR, Deane EM (2001b) Canine coronavirus in Australian dogs. Aust Vet J 79:116-119.
Naylor MJ, Walia CS, McOrist S, Lehrbach PR, Deane EM, Harrison GA (2002) Molecular Characterization confirms the presence of a divergent strain of canine coronavirus (UWSMN-1) in Australia. J Clin Microbiol 40:3518-3522.
Ntafis V, Mari V, Danika S, Fragkiadaki E, Buonavoglia C (2010a) An outbreak of canine coronavirus in a Greek kennel. J Vet Diagn Invest 22:320-323.
Ntafis V, Mari V, Decaro N, Papanastassopoulou M, Papaioannou N, Mpatziou R, Buonavoglia C, Xylouri E (2011a) Isolation, tissue distribution and molecular characterization of two recombinant canine coronavirus strains. Vet Microbiol 151:238-244.
Ntafis, V., Mari, V., Mpatziou, R., Thomas, A., Decaro, N., Buonavoglia, C., Xylouri, E., 2010b. Detection and molecular characterization of canine coronavirus in puppies with acute diarrhea in Greece. Proceedings of the 9th Congress of the Hellenic Veterinary NMedical Society on Companion Animals Practice (Athens, Greece), pp. 403-404.
Ntafis, V., Papanastassopoulou, M., Kanellos, T., Pardali, D., Xylouri, E., 2011b. Canine coronavirus. Epizootiological survey and mixed, with canine parvovirus type 2, infections in Greece. Proceedings of the 2nd Veterinary Forum on Companion Animals (Thessaloniki, Greece), pp. 212-213.
Ntafis, V., Xylouri, E., 2012a. Canine respiratory coronavirus: A novel coronavirus. Proceedings of the 3rd Veterinary Forum on Companion Animals (Athens. Greece), pp. 269-272.
Ntafis V, Xylouri E, Kalli I, Desario C, Mari V, Decaro N, Buonavoglia C (2010c) Characterization of canine parvovirus 2 variants circulating in Greece. J Vet Diagn Invest 22:737-740.
Ntafis V, Xylouri E, Mari V, Papanastassopoulou M, Papaioannou N, Thomas A, Buonavoglia C., Decaro N (2012b) Molecular characterization of a canine coronavirus NA/09 strain detected in a dog’s organs. Arch Virol 157:171-175.
Ntafis V, Xylouri E, Radogna A, Buonavoglia C, Martella V (2010d) An outbreak of canine norovirus infection in young dogs. J Clin Microbiol 48:2605-2608.
Ortego J, Sola I, Almazan F, Ceriani JE, Riquelme C, Balasch M, Plana J, Enjuanes L (2003) Transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus gene 7 is not essential but influences in vivo virus replication and virulence. Virology 308:13-22.
Paul MA, Carmichael LE, Childers H, Cotter S, Davidson A, Ford R, Hurley KF, Roth JA, Schultz RD, Thacker E, Welborn L (2006) American Animal Hospital Association Canine Vaccine Guidelines, Revised. www.aahanet.org/PublicDocuments/ VaccineGuidelines06Revised.pdf.
Pratelli A (2006) Genetic evolution of canine coronavirus and recent advances in prophylaxis. Vet Res 37:191–200.
Pratelli A (2007) Action of disinfectants on canine coronavirus replication in vitro. Zoonoses Public Hlth 54:383-386.
Pratelli A, Buonavoglia D, Martella V, Tempesta M, Lavazza A, Buonavoglia C (2000) Diagnosis of canine coronavirus infection using nested-PCR. J Vet Diagn Invest 84:91-94.
Pratelli A, Decaro N, Tinelli A, Martella V, Elia G, Tempesta M, Cirone F, Buonavoglia C (2004a) Two genotypes of canine coronavirus simultaneously detected in the fecal samples of dogs with diarrhea. J Clin Microbiol. 42:1797-1799.
Pratelli A, Elia G, Decaro N, Tola S, Tinelli A, Martella V, Rocca S, Tempesta M, Buonavoglia C (2004b) Cloning and expression of two fragments of the S gene of canine coronavirus type I. J Virol Methods, 117:61-65.
Pratelli A, Elia G, Martella V, Tinelli A, Decaro N, Marsilio F, Buonavoglia D, Tempesta M, Buonavoglia C (2002) M gene evolution of canine coronavirus in naturally infected dogs. Vet Rec 151:758–761.
Pratelli A, Martella V, Decaro N, Tinelli A, Camero M, Cirone F, Elia G, Cavalli A, Corrente M, Greco G, Buonavoglia D, Gentile M, Tempesta M, Buonavoglia C (2003a) Genetic diversity of a canine coronavirus detected in pups with diarrhea in Italy. J Virol Methods 110:9-17.
Pratelli A, Martella V, Elia G, Decaro N, Aliberti A, Buonavoglia D, Tempesta M, Buonavoglia C (2001a) Variation of the sequence in the gene encoding for transmembrane protein M of canine coronavirus (CCV). Mol Cell Probe 15:229–233.
Pratelli A, Martella V, Elia G, Tempesta M, Guarda F, Cappucchio MT, Carmichael LE, Buonavoglia C (2001b) Severe enteric disease in an animal shelter associated with dual infections by canine adenovirus type 1 and canine coronavirus. J Vet Med B 48:385-392.
Pratelli A, Martella V, Pistello M, Elia G, Decaro N, Buonavoglia D, Camero M, Tempesta M, Buonavoglia C (2003b) Identification of coronaviruses in dogs that segregate separately from the canine coronavirus genotype. J Virol Methods 107:213-222.
Pratelli A, Tinelli A, Decaro N, Cirone F, Elia G, Roperto S, Tempesta M, Buonavoglia C (2003c) Efficacy of an inactivated canine coronavirus vaccine in pups. New Microbiol 26:151-155.
Pratelli A, Tinelli A, Decaro N, Martella V, Camero M, Tempesta M, Martini M, Carmichael LE, Buonavoglia C (2004c) Safety and
efficacy of a modified-live canine coronavirus vaccine in dogs. Vet Microbiol 99:43-49.
Regan AD, Millet JK, Tse LPV, Chillag Z, Rinaldi VD, Licitra BN, Dubovi EJ, Town CD, Whittaker GR (2012) Characterization of a recombinant canine coronavirus with a distinct receptorbinding (S1) domain. Virology 430(2):90-99.
Rimmelzwaan GF, Groen J, Egberink H, Borst GHA, UytdeHaag FGCM, Osterhaus ADME (1991) The use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay systems for serology and antigen detection in parvovirus, coronavirus and rotavirus infections in dogs in The Netherlands. Vet Microbiol 26:25-40.
Roseto A, Lema F, Cavalieri F, Dianoux L, Sitbon M, Ferchal F, Lasneret J, Peries J (1980) Electron Microscopy Detection and Characterization of Viral Particles in Dog Stools. Arch Virol 66:89-93.
Rottier PJM, Nakamura K, Schellen P, Volders H, Haijema BJ (2005) Acquisition of macrophage tropism during the pathogenesis of feline infectious peritonitis is determined by mutations in the feline coronavirus spike protein. J Virol 79:14122-14130.
Sanchez-Morgado J M, Poynter S, Morris TH (2004) Molecular characterization of a virulent canine coronavirus BGF strain. Virus Res 104:27-31.
Takeuchi A, Binn LN, Jervis HR, Keenan KP, Hildebrandt PK, Valas RB, Bland FF (1976) Electron microscope study of experimental enteric infection in neonatal dogs with a canine coronavirus. Lab Invest 34:539-549.
Tennant BJ, Gaskell RM, Gaskell CJ (1994) Studies on the survival of canine coronavirus under different environmental conditions. Vet Microbiol 42:255-259.
Tennant BJ, Gaskell RM, Kelly DF, Carter SD (1991) Canine coronavirus infection in the dog following oronasal inoculation. Res Vet Sci, 51:11-18.
Vennema H, Poland A, Foley J, Pedersen NC (1998) Feline Infectious Peritonitis Viruses Arise by Mutation from Endemic Enteric Coronaviruses. Virology 243:150-157.
Wesley RD (1999) The S gene of canine coronavirus, strain UCD-1, is more closely related to the S gene of transmissible gastroenteritis virus than to that of feline infectious peritonitis virus. Virus Research 61:145-152.
Wolff MH, Sattar SA, Adegbunrin O, Tetro J (2005) Environmental survival and microbicide inactivation of coronaviruses. In: (eds.: Schmidt A, Wolff MH, Weber O) Coronaviruses with special emphasis on first insights concerning SARS. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp. 201–212.
Woo PCY, Lau SKP, Huang Y, Yuen KY (2009) Coronavirus diversity, phylogeny and interspecies jumping. Exp Biol M 234:1117-27.
Woods R (2001) Efficacy of a transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus with an altered ORF-3 gene. Can J Vet Res 65:28-32.
Woods RD, Cheville NF, Gallagher JE (1981) Lesions in the small intestine of newborn pigs inoculated with porcine, feline, and canine coronaviruses. Am J Vet Res 42:1163-1169.
Woods RD, Wesley RD (1992) Seroconversion of pigs in contact with dogs exposed to canine coronavirus. Can J Vet Res 56:78-80.
Yesilbag K, Yilmaz Z, Torun S, Pratelli A (2004) Canine coronavirus in Turkish dog population. J Vet Med 51:353-355.
Zappulli V, Caliari D, Cavicchioli L, Tinelli A, Castagnaro M (2008) Systemic fatal type II coronavirus infection in a dog: Pathological findings and immunocytochemistry. Res Vet Sci 84:278-282.
Zarnke RL, Evermann J, Ver Hoef JM, McNay ME, Boertje RD, Gardner CL, Adams LG, Dale BW, Burch J (2001) Serologic survey for canine coronavirus in wolves from Alaska. J Wildlife Dis 37:740-745.
Zicola A, Jolly S, Mathijs E, Ziant D, Decaro N, Mari V, Thiry E (2012) Fatal outbreaks in dogs associated with pantropic canine coronavirus in France and Belgium. J Small Anim Pract 53:297-300.
Τα περισσότερο διαβασμένα άρθρα του ίδιου συγγραφέα(s)