Drugs and environment


A. E. TYRPENOU (Α.Ε. ΤΥΡΠΕΝΟΥ)
Resumen

Medicines are very important for the treatment and prevention of disease in both humans and animals, but at the same time they may have and several unintended effects with adverse results to the environmental organisms. Although these effects of the drugs on human and animal have been studied and still are investigated from the safety point of view with toxicological studies, the potential environmental impacts of their manufacture and use are not absolutely defined and well understood. That is why during the last years this issue has become of first priority and of increased research concern, although some results of several chemical groups, specifically some anthelminthics and antibiotics, are known. But, there are many other groups of substances that can actively affect the organisms in the environment. This is further complicated by the fact that some pharmaceuticals can show adverse effects on bacteria and animals at concentrations well below of those that are usually used in safety and efficacy experimental tests. In addition, breakdown products, metabolism and the combination of different biologically active compounds may have unanticipated effects on the environment. Although it may be safe to assume that these substances do not harm humans, recent research has started to determine whether and how they affect the organisms in the environment and what this means for environmental health and our health too. Pharmaceuticals have been released into the environment for decades, but researchers have only recently begun to determine their concentration levels in the environment. Using information from different countries they have identified those pharmaceuticals that are most likely to be released into the environment. For example, data from the United Kingdom on annual usage of veterinary drugs was combined with information on administration routes, metabolism and eco toxicity to identify medicines that should be monitored in a national investigation programme. At the same time, similar programmes are performed for human medicines using information on annual usage, therapeutic dose along with predictive models. Although these studies are generally based on country-specific information, they still provide an indication of those substances that should be investigated at the international level. It is of special importance the contribution of the instrumental chemical analysis and the new analytical techniques, like high performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC/MS-MS), which have allowed us to develop a better understanding of how medicines behave in the environment as well as to determine their concentrations in several soils, surface waters, groundwaters and elsewhere. Once released into the environment, pharmaceuticals will be transported and distributed to air, water, soil or sediment depending on the influence of different physicochemical characteristics. The degree to which a pharmaceutical is transported into the environment primarilly depends on the sorption behaviour of the substance in soils, sediment-water systems which varies widely across pharmaceuticals. So, reported sorptioncoefficients for several veterinary medicines in soils range from <lL/kg to >6000L/kg. Pharmaceutical substances may also bedegraded by biological organisms, abiotic reactions reducing their potency, but generating some breakdown products with similar toxicity to the parent compound. Finally, drug degradation varies significantly depending on chemistry, biology and climatic conditions making the problem more complex and demanding individual solutions for each chemical compound.

Article Details
  • Sección
  • Review Articles
Descargas
Los datos de descargas todavía no están disponibles.
Citas
Baguer AJ, Jensen J, Krogh PH (2000) Effects of the antibiotics Oxytetracycline and tylosin on soil fauna. Chemosphere 40:751-757.
Boxali ABA, Fogg L, Blackwell PA, Kay P, Pemberton EJ (2002) Review of Veterinary Medicines in the Environment. R&D Technical Report P6-012/8/TR. Environment Agency, Rio House, Waterside Drive, Aztec West, Almondsbury, BRISTOL, BS32 4UD. ISBN: 185705 780 5
Boxali ABA, Kopiin DW, Halling-S0rensen B, Tolls J (2003) Are veterinary medicines causing environmental risks? Environ. Sci. Technol. 37:286A-294A.
Boxali ABA, Kay P, Blackwell PA, Fogg LA (2004) Fate of veterinary medicines applied to soils. In Pharmaceuticals in the Environment Kummerer Κ (ed), pp 165-180. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer
Bravden DJ (2003) Novel drug delivery strategies in veterinary medicine. Irish Veterinary Journal, 56(6):310-316
De Liguoro M, Cibin V, Capolongo F, Halling-S?rensen B, Montesissa C (2003) Use of Oxytetracycline and tylosin in intensive calf farming: evaluation of transfer to manure and soil. Chemosphere, 52(1):203-212.
DEFRA (2007) User Manual 2005-VetCalc-Exposure Modelling Tool for Veterinary Medicines, N. Mackay, P. Mason, A. Di Guardo-DEFRA Research Project VM02133, DEFRA-Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
EMEA (2000) Environmental impact assessment (EIAS) for veterinary medicinal products-PHASE I. VICH Topic GL6 (Ecotoxicity Phase I). The European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products. CVMP/VICH/592/98-FINAL. London, 30 June 2000.
Enick OV (2006) Do pharmaceutically active compounds have an ecological impact? Master of Environmental Toxicology. Department of Biological Sciences of Faculty of Science. Simon Fraser University, Canada.
Enviroplan (2007) Στρατηγική μελέτη περιβαλλοντικών επιπτώσεων του ειδικού πλαισίου χωροταξικού σχεδιασμού και αειφόρου ανάπτυξης για τις ανανεώσιμες πήγες ενέργειας. Τελική μελέτη ΥΠΕΧΩΔΕ, σελ. 1-375.
Europa (2007α) Επισκόπηση των δραστηριοτήτων της ΕΕ-Περιβάλλον, 2007-http://www.europa.eu/pol/env/overview_el.htm
Europa (2007β) Activities of the European Union-Summaries of Legislation - The environment and Organic farming – Waste management - Use of sewage sludge in agriculture.
Fernandez C, Alonso C, Babin MM, Pro J, Carbonell G, Tarazona JV (2004) Ecotoxicological assessment of doxycycline in aged pig manure using multispecies soil systems, Science of the total environment, 323(1-3): 63-69.
Hailing-S0rensen Β (2000) Algal toxicity of antibacterial agents used in intensive farming. Chemosphere, 40(7):731-739.
Halling-S0rensen B, Nors Nielsen S, Lanzky PF, Ingerslev F, Holten Lützh0ft HC, J0rgensen SE (1998) Occurrence, fate and effects of pharmaceutical substances in the Environment - a review. Chemosphere, 36:357-393.
Hamscher G, Pawelzick HT, Sczesny S, Nau H, Härtung J (2003) Antibiotics in Dust Originating from a Pig-Fattening Farm: A New Source of Health Hazard for Farmers? Environ Health Perspect, 111:1590-1594
Hamscher G, Pawelzick T, Hoper H, Nau H (2005) Different behavior of tetracyclines and sulfonamides in sandy soils after repeated fertilization with liquid manure, Environ Toxicol Chem, 24(4):861-868.
Harman J, Pearson I, Worth T, Kendall P, Davies D (2007) Waterwise on the farm, Version 2. A simple guide to implementing a water management plan. Environment Agency, Bristol, UK.
Holten Lützh0ft HC, Halling-S0rensen B, J0rgensen SE (1999) Algal Toxicity of Antibacterial Agents Applied in Danish Fish Farming. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 36:1-6.
Horrigan L, Lawrence, RS, Walker Ρ (2002) How sustainable agriculture can address the environmental and human health harms of industrial agriculture. Environ. Health Perspect., 110445-456
Jones AO, Lester JN, Voulvoulis Ν (2005) Pharmaceuticals: a threat to drinking water? Trends in Biotechnology, 23(4): 163-167.
Kay P, Blackwell Ρ, Boxall ABA (2004) Fate of veterinary antibiotics in a macroporous tile drained clay soil. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 23(5):1136-1144.
Kolodziej EP, Sedlak DL (2007) The Occurrence and Fate of Steroidal Hormones in Surface Waters Impacted by Cattle Grazing and Animal Agriculture. PROCEEDINGS of the AWRA Summer Specialty Conference "Emerging Contaminants of Concern in the Environment: Issues, Investigations, and Solutions. SESSION 2: Wastewater/Agricultural Sources. Vail-Colorado, June 25-27,2007
Kreuzig R, Blümlein Κ, Höltge S (2007) Fate of the Benzimidazole Antiparasitics Flubendazole and Fenbendazole in Manure and Manured Soils. Clean-Soil, Air, Water, 35(5):488-494.
Kühne M, Ihnen D, Möller G, Agthe Ο (2000) Stability of Tetracycline in Water and Liquid Manure. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series A, 47(6):379-384.
Kümmerer Κ (2004) Pharmaceuticals is the Environment: Sources, Fate, Effects and Risks. Klaus Kummerer. Second Edition-ISBN 3-540-21342-. Springer.com
Kümmerer Κ (2003) Significance of antibiotics in the environment. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 52:5-7.
Levy SB (1992) The antibiotic paradox: how miracle drugs are destroying the miracle. Plenum, New York
Levy SB (1997) Antibiotic resistance: an ecological imbalance. Antibiotic resistance: origins, evolution, selection and spread. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester. Ciba Foundation Symposium 207, USA, ρ 1-14
Li D, Yang M, Hu J, Ren L, Zhang Y, Li Κ (2008) Determination and fate of Oxytetracycline and related compounds in Oxytetracycline production wastewater and the receiving river. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 27(l):80-86.
Loftin Κ (2007) Occurrence of Antibiotics in U.S. Biosolids and Manure: A Source Reconnaissance. American Water Resources Association. SUMMER SPECIALTY CONFERENCE. Emerging Contaminants of Concern in the Environment: Issues, Investigations and Solutions, 25-27 June 2007.
Mackay N, Mason P, Di Guardo A (2008) VetCalc Exposure Modelling Tool for Veterinary Medicines. User's Manual, DEFRA Research Project VM02133, ppl-221.
Montforts MHMM (1999) Environmental risk assessment for veterinary medicinal products. Part 1: Other than GMO-containing and immunological products. RIVM report 601300 001, N120. National Institute of Public Health and the Environment, Bithoven, The Netherlands.
Montforts MHMM, Verschoor AJ (2003) Environmental risk assessment for veterinary medicinal products. Part 3. Validation of environmental exposure models-RIVM, 2003, pp 1-144, Report 601450016/2003.
Nelson ML, Park BH, Andrews JS, Georgian VA, Thomas RC, Levy SB (1993) Inhibition of the tetracycline efflux antiport protein by 13-thio-substituted 5-hydroxy-6-deoxy tetracyclines. J Med Chem 36:370-377
Nelson ML, Park BH, Levy SB (1994) Molecular requirements for the inhibition of the tetracyline antiport protein and the effect of potent inhibitors on growth of tetracycline resistant bacteria. J Med Chem 37:1355-1361
O'Brien E, Dietrich DR (2004) Hindsight rather than foresight: reality versus the EU draft guideline on pharmaceuticals in the environment. Trends Biotechnol, 22(7):326-330
Power M (1999) Recovery in aquatic ecosystems: an overview of knowledge and needs. Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Stress and Recovery, 6:253-257. products-Phase II Guidance. CVMP/VICH/790/03-FINAL
Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH),establishing a European Chemicals Agency, amending Directive 1999/45/EC and repealing Council Regulation (EEC) No 793/93 and Commission Regulation (EC) No 1488/94 as well as Council Directive 76/769/EEC and Commission Directives 91/155/EEC, 93/67/EEC, 93/105/EC and 2000/21/EC Renner R (2002) Do cattle growth hormones pose an environmental risk? Environ. Sci. Technol., 36:194A-197A.
Rice DN, Straw Β (1996) Use of animal drugs in livestock management, University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Sarmah AK, Meyer MT, Boxali ABA (2006) A global perspective on the use, sales, exposure pathways, occurrence, fate and effects of veterinary antibiotics (VAs) in the environment-Review. Chemosphere 65:725-759
Schmitt Η (2005) The effects of veterinary antibiotics on soil microbial communities. The effects of veterinary antibiotics on soil microbial communities. Heike Schmitt, Universiteit Utrecht, Faculteit Biologie, IRAS, 2005-ISBN 90-8559-056-6.
Schneider J (1994) Problems related to the u sage of veterinary drugs in aquaculture-a review. Quimica Analytica, Suppl. LS34-S42.
Stumpf, M, Ternes TA, Rolf-Dieter W, Rodrigues SV, Baumann W (1999) Polar drug residues in sewage and natural waters of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Sci. Total Environ. 225,135-141.
Ternes TA (1998) Occurrence of drugs in German sewage treatment plants and rivers. Water Res. 32,3245-3260.
Teuber M (2001) Veterinary use and antibiotic resistance. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 4:493-499
Thiele-Bruhn S (2003) Pharmaceutical antibiotic compounds in soils a review. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci., 166:145-167.
Tovar A, Moreno C, Manuel-Vez MP, Vargas MG (2000) Environmental impacts of intensive aquaculture in marine waters. Water Research., 34(l):334-342.
Ungemach FR (2000) Figures on quantities of antibacterials used for different purposes in the EU countries and interpretation. Acta Vet. Scand. Suppl. 9389-97.
VICH (2000) Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) for Veterinary Medicinal Products (VMPS) - Phase I - VICH GL6 (Ecotoxicity Phase I), 2000
Wehrhan A (2006) Fate of veterinary pharmaceuticals in soil: An experimental and numerical study on the mobility, sorption and transformation of sulfadiazine. Diplom Geo?kologin.
WHO (2001) Global Strategy for Containment of Antimicrobial Resistance. Report No. WHO/CDS/CSR/DRS/2001.2a, World Health Organisation
Wollenberger L, Halling-S?rensen B, Kusk KO (2000) Acute and chronic toxicity of veterinary antibiotics to Daphnia magna. Chemosphere, 40(7):723-730.
www.environment-agency.gov.uk
Zuccato E, Calamari D, Natangelo M, Fanelli R (2000) Presence of therapeutic drugs in the environment. The Lancet, 355:1789-1790.
Zuccato E, Castiglioni S, Fanelli R, Reitano G, Bagnati R, Chiabrando C, Pomati F, Rossetti C, Calamari D (2006) Pharmaceuticals in the Environment in Italy: Causes, Occurrence, Effects and Control. ESPR-Environ Sci & Pollut Res, 13(1):15-21
Βαφειάδης Ν (2007) Ψυττάλεια. Η πολιτική πνίγεται στη λυματολάσπη! Περιοδικό Κ, ΚΑΘΗΜΕΡΙΝΗ Α.Ε. Έντυπες & Δικτυακές Εκδόσεις Α.Ε., σελ. 14-26
Δήμας (2007) Απόβλητα και Δραστηριότητες. Σταύρος Δήμας, Επίτροπος αρμόδιος για το περιβάλλον.
Κανονισμός (ΕΚ) αριθ. 1831/2003 για τις πρόσθετες ύλες που χρησιμοποιούνται στη διατροφή των ζώων. Επίσημη Εφημερίδα της Ευρωπαϊκής Ένωσης, L 268/29
Κιλικίδης Σ (1979) Οικολογία. Δομή, λειτουργία και ρύπανση των οικοσυστημάτων, θεσσαλονίκη, 1979.
Μυλόπουλος Γ, Κολοκυθά Ε (2006) Περιβαλλοντικά προβλήματα και οικονομική ανάπτυξη της θεσσαλονίκης. Πρακτικά 2ου Συνεδρίου Συμβουλίου Περιβάλλοντος Α.Π.Θ., θεσσαλονίκη, 1-4 Ιουνίου 2006 Εκδόσεις Ζήτη-θεσσαλονίκη Σελ.311-317
Νόμος 106/2002 Περί ελέγχου της ρύπανσης των νερών και του εδάφους για την εναρμόνιση με την Ευρωπαϊκή Οδηγία 91/676/ΕΟΚ για την προστασία των υδάτων από τη νιτρορρΰπανση γεωργικής προέλευσης και την έγκριση του Κώδικα Ορθής Γεωργικής Πρακτικής.
Οδηγία 2001/82/ΕΚ Περί κοινοτικού κώδικα για τα κτηνιατρικά φάρμακα. Επίσημη Εφημερίδα των Ευρωπαϊκών Κοινοτήτων, L 311/1.
Οδηγία 2004/28/ΕΚγια την τροποποίηση της Οδηγίας 2001/82/ΕΚ περί κοινοτικού κώδικα για τα κτηνιατρικά φάρμακα. Επίσημη Εφημερίδα των Ευρωπαϊκών Κοινοτήτων, L136/58
Τυρπένου ΑΕ (2002) Υγροχρωματογραφικός προσδιορισμός των καταλοίπων της υδροχλωρικής σαραφλοξακίνης μετά από χορήγηση αυτής με την τροφή σε εκτρεφόμενες τσιπούρες. Διδακτορική διατριβή, ΑΠΘ.
Artículos más leídos del mismo autor/a