A Review on Recent Advancement in the Molecular Diagnostics of Leishmania


Δημοσιευμένα: Dec 5, 2023
Ενημερώθηκε: 2023-12-05
Εκδόσεις:
2023-12-05 (4)
MT Aleem
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8899-2777
A Shaukat
T ur-Rehman
J Hussain
HM Ali
MA Zaman
Z Saeed
RZ Abbas
A Ijaz
Z Shahid
M Mohsin
W Babar
Περίληψη

Leishmaniasis is a protozoan infection with chronic manifestation, having high morbidity and mortality rates, and adversely affecting almost every species of animals. It is a globally prevalent vector-borne disease throughout all tropical and subtropical regions. Twenty intracellular species belonging to the genus leishmania cause all types of leishmaniasis infection, including cutaneous, mucocutaneous, and visceral leishmaniasis in animals and human beings. Sandfly, as a vector, is responsible for its transmission between different hosts. Animals and humans affected with leishmaniasis may be prone to re-infection of another disease, especially the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) syndrome, through trans-activation modification of the immune system. Several diagnostic procedures have been developed and are being used for its detection and confirmation. Hence, there is a need for standard as well as advanced diagnostic tools that are immediately required to identify the species for further treatment and to adopt precautionary and safety measures against leishmaniasis. The current review constitutes a brief picture flowing from microscopic evaluation to all possible immunological techniques that can detect the species and can differentiate between different types of leishmaniasis, along with the morphology and various routes of transmission of the parasite. These methods include serological antigenic screening like direct and indirect agglutination tests, indirect fluorescent antibody test, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, western blotting, and immuno-chromatographic test to advanced molecular techniques like nucleic acid sequence-based amplification, polymerase chain reaction, loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay and some modern techniques like proteomics, transcriptomics and protein biomarkers. The aim of this brief overview of all these diagnostic techniques is to summarize the recent development in the diagnosis to find a cheap and early diagnostic procedure for better detection and control of the infection.

Λεπτομέρειες άρθρου
  • Ενότητα
  • Review Articles
Λήψεις
Τα δεδομένα λήψης δεν είναι ακόμη διαθέσιμα.
Αναφορές
Abass, E., Bollig, N., Reinhard, K., Camara, B., Mansour, D., Visekruna, A., Lohoff, M., Steinhoff, U., 2013. rKLO8, a Novel Leishmania donovani - Derived Recombinant Immunodominant Protein for Sensitive Detection of Visceral Leishmaniasis in Sudan. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 7, e2322. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002322
Adams, E.R., Schoone, G.J., Ageed, A.F., El Safi, S., Schallig, H.D.F.H., 2010. Development of a reverse transcriptase loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay for the sensitive detection of Leishmania parasites in clinical samples. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82, 591–596. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0369
Akhoundi, B., Mohebali, M., Babakhan, L., Edrissian, G.H., Eslami, M.B., Keshavarz, H., Malekafzali, H., 2010. Rapid detection of human Leishmania infantum infection: A comparative field study using the fast agglutination screening test and the direct agglutination test. Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease 8, 305–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2010.09.001
Akhoundi, B., Mohebali, M., Shojaee, S., Jalali, M., Kazemi, B., Bandehpour, M., Keshavarz, H., Hossein Edrissian, G., Eslami, M.B., Malekafzali, H., Kouchaki, A., 2013. Rapid detection of human and canine visceral leishmaniasis: Assessment of a latex agglutination test based on the A2 antigen from amastigote forms of Leishmania infantum. EXPERIMENTAL PARASITOLOGY 133, 307–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2012.12.002
Akhoundi, M., Downing, T., Votýpka, J., Kuhls, K., Lukeš, J., Cannet, A., Ravel, C., Marty, P., Delaunay, P., Kasbari, M., Granouillac, B., Gradoni, L., Sereno, D., 2017. Leishmania infections: Molecular targets and diagnosis. Molecular Aspects of Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mam.2016.11.012
Al-Salem, W.S., Ferreira, D.M., Dyer, N.A., Alyamani, E.J., Balghonaim, S.M., Al-Mehna, A.Y., Al-Zubiany, S., Ibrahim, E.K., Al Shahrani, A.M., Alkhuailed, H., Aldahan, M.A., Al Jarallh, A.M., Abdelhady, S.S., Al-Zahrani, M.H., Almeida, I.C., Acosta-Serrano, A., 2014. Detection of high levels of anti-α-galactosyl antibodies in sera of patients with Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis: A possible tool for diagnosis and biomarker for cure in an elimination setting. Parasitology 141, 1898–1903. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182014001607
Alexander, J., Brombacher, F., 2012. T helper1/T helper2 cells and resistance/susceptibility to Leishmania infection: Is this paradigm still relevant? Frontiers in Immunology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2012.00080
Alimohammadian, M.H., Jones, S.L., Darabi, H., Riazirad, F., Ajdary, S., Shabani, A., Rezaee, M.A., Mohebali, M., Hosseini, Z., Modabber, F., 2012. Assessment of interferon-γ levels and leishmanin skin test results in persons recovered for leishmaniasis. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 87, 70–75. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2012.11-0479
Allahverdiyev, A.M., Bagirova, M., Uzun, S., Alabaz, D., Aksaray, N., Kocabas, E., Koksal, F., 2005. The value of a new microculture method for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis by using bone marrow and peripheral blood. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 73, 276–280. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2005.73.276
Almeida, L.A., Araujo, R., 2013. Highlights on molecular identification of closely related species. Infection, Genetics and Evolution. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meegid.2012.08.011
Aluru, S., Hide, M., Michel, G., Bañuls, A.-L., Marty, P., Pomares, C., 2015. Multilocus microsatellite typing of Leishmania and clinical applications: a review. Parasite 22. https://doi.org/10.1051/PARASITE/2015016
Alvar, J., Cañavate, C., Gutiérrez-Solar, B., Jiménez, M., Laguna, F., López-Vélez, R., Molina, R., Moreno, J., 1997. Leishmania and human immunodeficiency virus coinfection: The first 10 years. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1128/cmr.10.2.298
Alvar, J., Vélez, I.D., Bern, C., Herrero, M., Desjeux, P., Cano, J., Jannin, J., de Boer, M., 2012. Leishmaniasis worldwide and global estimates of its incidence. PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035671
Añez, N., Tang, Y., Rojas, A., Crisante, G., Killick-Kendrick, M., Killick-Kendrick, R., 2003. Detection of Amastigote-like Forms in the Valve of Phlebotomus papatasi Infected with Leishmania major. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 98, 495–498. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02762003000400011
Antinori, S., Calattini, S., Longhi, E., Bestetti, G., Piolini, R., Magni, C., Orlando, G., Gramiccia, M., Acquaviva, V., Foschi, A., Corvasce, S., Colomba, C., Titone, L., Parravicini, C., Cascio, A., Corbellino, M., 2007. Clinical Use of Polymerase Chain Reaction Performed on Peripheral Blood and Bone Marrow Samples for the Diagnosis and Monitoring of Visceral Leishmaniasis in HIV-Infected and HIV-Uninfected Patients: A Single-Center, 8-Year Experience in Italy and Review . Clinical Infectious Diseases 44, 1602–1610. https://doi.org/10.1086/518167
Antonio, L. de F., Fagundes, A., Oliveira, R.V.C., Pinto, P.G., Bedoya-Pacheco, S.J., Vasconcellos, E. de C.F. e, Valete-Rosalino, M.C., Lyra, M.R., Passos, S.R.L., Pimentel, M.I.F., Schubach, A. de O., n.d. Montenegro skin test and age of skin lesion as predictors of treatment failure in cutaneous leishmaniasis. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo 56, 375–80. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0036-46652014000500002
Artan, R., Yilmaz, A., Akçam, M., Aksoy, N.H., 2006. Liver biopsy in the diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology (Australia) 21, 299–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1746.2006.04172.x
Ashford, R.W., 2000. The leishmaniases as emerging and reemerging zoonoses. International Journal for Parasitology 30, 1269–1281. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0020-7519(00)00136-3
Badaro, R., Reed, S.G., Carvalho, E.M., 1983. Immunofluorescent antibody test in American visceral Leishmaniasis sensitivity and specificity of different morphological forms of two Leishmania species. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 32, 480–484. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.1983.32.480
Basiye, F.L., Mbuchi, M., Magiri, C., Kirigi, G., Deborggraeve, S., Schoone, G.J., Saad, A.A., El-Safi, S., Matovu, E., Wasunna, M.K., 2010. Sensitivity and specificity of the Leishmania OligoC-TesT and NASBA-oligochromatography for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in Kenya. Tropical Medicine and International Health 15, 806–810. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2010.02548.x
Bates, P.A., 2007. Transmission of Leishmania metacyclic promastigotes by phlebotomine sand flies. International Journal for Parasitology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.04.003
Bates, P.A., 1994. Complete developmental cycle of Leishmania mexicana in axenic culture. Parasitology 108, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182000078458
Bates, P.A., 1993. Axenic culture of Leishmania Amastigotes. Parasitology Today 9, 143–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(93)90181-E
Bates, P.A., Tetley, L., 1993. Leishmania mexicana: Induction of metacyclogenesis by cultivation of promastigotes at acidic pH. Experimental Parasitology 76, 412–423. https://doi.org/10.1006/expr.1993.1050
Berger, B.A., Bartlett, A.H., Saravia, N.G., Galindo Sevilla, N., 2017. Pathophysiology of Leishmania Infection during Pregnancy. Trends in Parasitology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2017.08.012
Bern, C., Jha, S.N., Joshi, A.B., Thakur, G.D., Bista, M.B., 2000. Use of the recombinant K39 dipstick test and the direct agglutination test in a setting endemic for visceral leishmaniasis in Nepal. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 63, 153–157. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2000.63.153
Boelaert, M., Bhattacharya, S., Chappuis, F., El Safi, S.H., Hailu, A., Mondal, D., Rijal, S., Sundar, S., Wasunna, M., Peeling, R.W., 2007. Evaluation of rapid diagnostic tests: Visceral leishmaniasis. Nature Reviews Microbiology 5, S31–S39. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro1766
Boggild, A.K., Miranda-Verastegui, C., Espinosa, D., Arevalo, J., Martinez-Medina, D., Llanos-Cuentas, A., Low, D.E., 2008. Optimization of microculture and evaluation of miniculture for the isolation of Leishmania parasites from cutaneous lesions in Peru. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 79, 847–852. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2008.79.847
Bourreau, E., Prévot, G., Gardon, J., Pradinaud, R., Launois, P., 2001. High Intralesional Interleukin‐10 Messenger RNA Expression in Localized Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Is Associated with Unresponsiveness to Treatment. The Journal of Infectious Diseases 184, 1628–1630. https://doi.org/10.1086/324665
Brito, M.E.F., Mendonça, M.G., Gomes, Y.M., Jardim, M.L., Abath, F.G.C., 2000. Identification of potentially diagnostic Leishmania braziliensis antigens in human cutaneous leishmaniasis by immunoblot analysis. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 7, 318–321. https://doi.org/10.1128/CDLI.7.2.318-321.2000
Caliendo, A.M., Gilbert, D.N., Ginocchio, C.C., Hanson, K.E., May, L., Quinn, T.C., Tenover, F.C., Alland, D., Blaschke, A.J., Bonomo, R.A., Carroll, K.C., Ferraro, M.J., Hirschhorn, L.R., Joseph, W.P., Karchmer, T., MacIntyre, A.T., Reller, L.B., Jackson, A.F., Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), 2013. Better tests, better care: improved diagnostics for infectious diseases. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 57 Suppl 3, S139-70. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/cit578
Campanelli, A.P., Roselino, A.M., Cavassani, K.A., Pereira, M.S.F., Mortara, R.A., Brodskyn, C.I., Gonçalves, H.S., Belkaid, Y., Barral‐Netto, M., Barral, A., Silva, J.S., 2006. CD4 + CD25 + T Cells in Skin Lesions of Patients with Cutaneous Leishmaniasis Exhibit Phenotypic and Functional Characteristics of Natural Regulatory T Cells . The Journal of Infectious Diseases 193, 1313–1322. https://doi.org/10.1086/502980
Chappuis, F., Rijal, S., Soto, A., Menten, J., Boelaert, M., 2006. A meta-analysis of the diagnostic performance of the direct agglutination test and rK39 dipstick for visceral leishmaniasis. British Medical Journal 333, 723–726. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.38917.503056.7C
Cota, G.F., De Sousa, M.R., De Freitas Nogueira, B.M., Gomes, L.I., Oliveira, E., Assis, T.S.M., De Mendonca, A.L.P., Pinto, B.F., Saliba, J.W., Rabello, A., 2013. Comparison of parasitological, serological, and molecular tests for visceral leishmaniasis in HIV-infected patients: A cross-sectional delayed-type study. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 89, 570–577. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.13-0239
Cota, G.F., de Sousa, M.R., Demarqui, F.N., Rabello, A., 2012. The diagnostic accuracy of serologic and molecular methods for detecting visceral leishmaniasis in HIV infected patients: Meta-analysis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001665
Cruz, I., Chicharro, C., Nieto, J., Bailo, B., Cañavate, C., Figueras, M.C., Alvar, J., 2006. Comparison of new diagnostic tools for management of pediatric mediterranean visceral leishmaniasis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 44, 2343–2347. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02297-05
Cruz, I., Millet, A., Carrillo, E., Chenik, M., Salotra, P., Verma, S., Veland, N., Jara, M., Adaui, V., Castrillón, C., Arévalo, J., Moreno, J., Cañavate, C., 2013. An approach for interlaboratory comparison of conventional and real-time PCR assays for diagnosis of human leishmaniasis. Experimental Parasitology 134, 281–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2013.03.026
Cruz, I., Morales, M.A., Noguer, I., Rodríguez, A., Alvar, J., 2002. Leishmania in discarded syringes from intravenous drug users. Lancet 359, 1124–1125. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08160-6
Cunha, T., Santos, M., Lins, Araújo, P.M. de, De, M.C., Santana, Asano, N.M.J., Monteiro, P., Leal, G.S. de P., Barbosa, M.B.G., Souza, R. de, 2017. A Case Report of Leishmaniasis and HIV Co-Infection in Pernambuco , Brazil.
Dakic, Z.D., Pelemis, M.R., Stevanovic, G.D., Poluga, J.L., Lavadinovic, L.S., Milosevic, I.S., Indjic, N.K., Ofori-Belic, I. V., Pavlovic, M.D., 2009. Epidemiology and diagnostics of visceral leishmaniasis in Serbia. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 15, 1173–1176. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02768.x
De Colmenares, M., Portus, M., Riera, C., Gallego, M., Aisa, M.J., Torras, S., Munoz, C., 1995. Short report: Detection of 72-75-kD and 123-kD fractions of Leishmania antigen in urine of patients with visceral leishmaniasis. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 52, 427–428. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.1995.52.427
de Jesus, J.B., Mesquita-Rodrigues, C., Cuervo, P., 2014. Proteomics advances in the study of Leishmania parasites and leishmaniasis. Sub-Cellular Biochemistry 74, 323–349. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7305-9_14
de Paiva-Cavalcanti, M., de Morais, R.C.S., Pessoa-e-Silva, R., Trajano-Silva, L.A.M., Gonçalves-de-Albuquerque, S. da C., Tavares, D. de H.C., Brelaz-de-Castro, M.C.A., Silva, R. de F. e., Pereira, V.R.A., 2015. Leishmaniases diagnosis: An update on the use of immunological and molecular tools. Cell and Bioscience. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13578-015-0021-2
Del Olmo Martínez, L., Aller de la Fuente, R., Velayos Jiménez, B., Fernández Salazar, L., González Hernández, J.M., 2009. [Visceral leishmaniasis diagnosed by duodenal biopsy]. Revista espanola de enfermedades digestivas : organo oficial de la Sociedad Espanola de Patologia Digestiva 101, 439–40.
Desjeux, P., 2001. The increase in risk factors for leishmaniasis worldwide. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0035-9203(01)90223-8
Desjeux, P., 1996. Leishmaniasis: Public health aspects and control. Clinics in Dermatology 14, 417–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/0738-081X(96)00057-0
Diro, E., Lynen, L., Ritmeijer, K., Boelaert, M., Hailu, A., van Griensven, J., 2014. Visceral Leishmaniasis and HIV Coinfection in East Africa. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 8. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002869
Diro, E., Techane, Y., Tefera, T., Assefa, Y., Kebede, T., Genetu, A., Kebede, Y., Tesfaye, A., Ergicho, B., Gebre-Yohannes, A., Mengistu, G., Engers, H., Aseffa, A., Desjeux, P., Boelaert, M., Hailu, A., 2007. Field evaluation of FD-DAT, rK39 dipstick and KATEX (urine latex agglutination) for diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in northwest Ethiopia. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 101, 908–914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2007.05.002
Elamin, A., Omer, M.I.A., 1992. Visceral Leishmaniasis in a 6-Week-Old Infant: Possible Congenital Transmission. Tropical Doctor 22, 133–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/004947559202200326
Elmahallawy, E.K., Sampedro Martínez, A., Rodriguez-Granger, J., Hoyos-Mallecot, Y., Agil, A., Navarro Mari, J.M., Gutierrez Fernández, J., 2014. Diagnosis of leishmaniasis. Journal of Infection in Developing Countries 8, 961–972. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.4310
Erel, O., Kocyigit, A., Gurel, M.S., Bulut, V., Seyrek, A., Ozdemir, Y., 1998. Adenosine Deaminase Activities in Sera, Lymphocytes and Granulocytes in Patients with Cutaneous Leishmaniasis. Memorias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz 93, 491–494. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0074-02761998000400014
Forestier, C.L., Gao, Q., Boons, G.J., 2014. Leishmania lipophosphoglycan: How to establish structure-activity relationships for this highly complex and multifunctional glycoconjugate? Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2014.00193
Fukutani, K.F., Figueiredo, V., Celes, F.S., Cristal, J.R., Barral, A., Barral-Netto, M., de Oliveira, C.I., 2014. Serological survey of Leishmania infection in blood donors in Salvador, northeastern Brazil. BMC Infectious Diseases 14, 422. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-14-422
Galaï, Y., Chabchoub, N., Ben-Abid, M., Ben-Abda, I., Ben-Alaya-Bouafif, N., Amri, F., Aoun, K., Bouratbine, A., 2011. Diagnosis of Mediterranean visceral Leishmaniasis by detection of Leishmania antibodies and Leishmania DNA in oral fluid samples collected using an oracol device. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 49, 3150–3153. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00267-11
Galluzzi, L., Ceccarelli, M., Diotallevi, A., Menotta, M., Magnani, M., 2018. Real-time PCR applications for diagnosis of leishmaniasis. Parasites and Vectors. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-018-2859-8
Gomes-Pereira, S., Rodrigues, O.R., Santos-Gomes, G.M., 2004. Dynamics of CD62L/CD45RB CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocyte subsets in hepatic and splenic tissues during murine visceral leishmaniasis. Immunology Letters 95, 63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imlet.2004.06.005
Gonçalves-de-Albuquerque, S. da C., Pessoa-e-Silva, R., Trajano-Silva, L.A.M., de Goes, T.C., de Morais, R.C.S., Oliveira, C.N. d. C., de Lorena, V.M.B., de Paiva-Cavalcanti, M., 2017. The equivocal role of Th17 cells and neutrophils on immunopathogenesis of leishmaniasis. Frontiers in Immunology. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2017.01437
Goto, H., Lindoso, J.A.L., 2010. Current diagnosis and treatment of cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy. https://doi.org/10.1586/eri.10.19
Herwaldt, B.L., 1999. Leishmaniasis. Lancet. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)10178-2
Herwaldt, B.L., Juranek, D.D., 1993. Laboratory-acquired malaria, leishmaniasis, trypanosomiasis, and toxoplasmosis. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.1993.48.313
Hosseinzadeh, M., Omidifar, N., Lohrasb, M.H., 2012. Use of fine needle aspiration cytology in the diagnosis of cutaneous leishmaniasis: A comparison with the conventional scraping method. Tropical Doctor 42, 112–113. https://doi.org/10.1258/td.2011.110420
Inceboz, T., 2019. Epidemiology and Ecology of Leishmaniasis, in: Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.86359
Iqbal, J., Hira, P.R., Saroj, G., Philip, R., Al-Ali, F., Madda, P.J., Sher, A., 2002. Imported visceral leishmaniasis: Diagnostic dilemmas and comparative analysis of three assays. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 40, 475–479. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.40.3.475-479.2001
Jara, M., Adaui, V., Valencia, B.M., Martinez, D., Alba, M., Castrillon, C., Cruz, M., Cruz, I., Van Der Auwera, G., Llanos-Cuentas, A., Dujardin, J.C., Arevalo, J., 2013. Real-time PCR assay for detection and quantification of Leishmania (Viannia) organisms in skin and mucosal lesions: Exploratory study of parasite load and clinical parameters. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 51, 1826–1833. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00208-13
Kato, H., Gomez, E.A., Cáceres, A.G., Uezato, H., Mimori, T., Hashiguchi, Y., 2010. Molecular epidemiology for vector research on leishmaniasis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7030814
Khan, M.G.M., Bhaskar, K.R.H., Salam, M.A., Akther, T., Pluschke, G., Mondal, D., 2012. Diagnostic accuracy of loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) for detection of Leishmania DNA in buffy coat from visceral leishmaniasis patients. Parasites and Vectors 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-5-280
Khosravi, S., Hejazi, S.H., Hashemzadeh, M., Eslami, G., Darani, H.Y., 2012. Molecular diagnosis of Old World leishmaniasis: real-time PCR based on tryparedoxin peroxidase gene for the detection and identification of Leishmania spp. Journal of vector borne diseases 49, 15–8.
Kumar, D., Kumar, S., Chakravarty, J., Sundar, S., 2011. A Novel 12.6-kDa Protein of Leishmania donovani for the Diagnosis of Indian Visceral Leishmaniasis. Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases 11, 1359. https://doi.org/10.1089/VBZ.2011.0620
Kumar, V., Kishore, K., Palit, A., Keshari, S., Sharma, M.C., Das, V.N., Shivakumar, S., Roy, M.S., Sinha, N.K., Prasad, M., Kar, S.K., 2001. Vectorial efficacy of Phlebotomus argentipes in Kala-azar endemic foci of Bihar (India) under natural and artificial conditions. The Journal of communicable diseases 33, 102–9.
Loke, Y.W., 1982. Transmission of Parasites Across the Placenta. Advances in Parasitology 21, 155–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-308X(08)60276-6
Machado de Assis, T.S., Rabello, A., Werneck, G.L., 2012. Latent class analysis of diagnostic tests for visceral leishmaniasis in Brazil. Tropical Medicine and International Health 17, 1202–1207. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2012.03064.x
Mahdi Fakhar, 2012. Comparative performance of direct agglutination test, indirect immunofluorescent antibody test, polymerase chain reaction and bone marrow aspiration method for diagnosis of Mediterranean visceral leishmaniasis. African Journal of Microbiology Research 6. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajmr12.054
Maia, C., Dantas-Torres, F., Campino, L., 2018. Parasite biology: The reservoir hosts, in: The Leishmaniases: Old Neglected Tropical Diseases. Springer International Publishing, pp. 79–106. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72386-0_4
Maia, Z., Lírio, M., Mistro, S., Mendes, C.M.C., Mehta, S.R., Badaro, R., 2012. Comparative study of rK39 Leishmania antigen for serodiagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis: Systematic review with meta-analysis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001484
Martín-Sánchez, J., Pineda, J.A., Morillas-Márquez, F., García-García, J.A., Acedo, C., Macías, J., 2004. Detection of Leishmania infantum kinetoplast DNA in peripheral blood from asymptomatic individuals at risk for parenterally transmitted infections: Relationship between polymerase chain reaction results and other Leishmania infection markers. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 70, 545–548. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2004.70.545
Masmoudi, A., Hariz, W., Marrekchi, S., Amouri, M., Turki, H., 2013. Old World cutaneous leishmaniasis: Diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Dermatological Case Reports 7, 31–41. https://doi.org/10.3315/jdcr.2013.1135
Maspi, N., Abdoli, A., Ghaffarifar, F., 2016. Pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in cutaneous leishmaniasis: a review. Pathogens and Global Health. https://doi.org/10.1080/20477724.2016.1232042
Masucci, M., De Majo, M., Contarino, R.B., Borruto, G., Vitale, F., Pennisi, M.G., 2003. Canine leishmaniasis in the newborn puppy. Veterinary research communications 27 Suppl 1, 771–4. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:verc.0000014268.61966.69
Maurya, R., Mehrotra, S., Prajapati, V.K., Nylén, S., Sacks, D., Sundar, S., 2010. Evaluation of blood agar microtiter plates for culturing Leishmania parasites to titrate parasite burden in spleen and peripheral blood of patients with visceral leishmaniasis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 48, 1932–1934. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01733-09
Mayeux, R., 2004. Biomarkers: Potential Uses and Limitations. NeuroRx 1, 182–188. https://doi.org/10.1602/neurorx.1.2.182
McKean, P.G., Gull, K., 2010. The Flagellar Pocket of Trypanosomatids: A Critical Feature for Cell Morphogenesis and Pathogenicity. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 87–113. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-12863-9_4
Meinecke, C.K., Schottelius, J., Oskam, L., Fleischer, B., 1999. Congenital transmission of visceral leishmaniasis (Kala Azar) from an asymptomatic mother to her child. Pediatrics 104, e65–e65. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.104.5.e65
Mikita, K., Maeda, T., Yoshikawa, S., Ono, T., Miyahira, Y., Kawana, A., 2014. The Direct Boil-LAMP method: A simple and rapid diagnostic method for cutaneous leishmaniasis. Parasitology International 63, 785–789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2014.07.007
Mohapatra, S., Samantaray, J.C., Ghosh, A., 2016. A Comparative Study of Serum, Urine and Saliva Using rk39 Strip for the Diagnosis of Visceral Leishmaniasis. Journal of arthropod-borne diseases 10, 87–91.
Mohapatra, T.M., Singh, D.P., Sen, M.R., Bharti, K., Sundar, S., 2010. Comparative evaluation of rK9, rK26 and rK39 antigens in the serodiagnosis of Indian visceral leishmaniasis. Journal of Infection in Developing Countries 4, 114–117. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.544
Molina, R., Amela, C., Nieto, J., San-Andrés, M., González, F., Castillo, J.A., Lucientes, J., Alvar, J., 1994. Infectivity of dogs naturally infected with Leishmania infantum to colonized Phlebotomus perniciosus. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 88, 491–493. https://doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(94)90446-4
Monno, R., Giannelli, G., Rizzo, C., De Vito, D., Fumarola, L., 2009. Recombinant K39 immunochromatographic test for diagnosis of human leishmaniasis. Future Microbiology 4, 159–170. https://doi.org/10.2217/17460913.4.2.159
Monroy-Ostria, A., Nasereddin, A., Monteon, V.M., Guzmán-Bracho, C., Jaffe, C.L., 2014. ITS1 PCR-RFLP Diagnosis and Characterization of Leishmania in Clinical Samples and Strains from Cases of Human Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in States of the Mexican Southeast. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases 2014. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/607287
Mortazavi, H., Sadeghipour, P., Taslimi, Y., Habibzadeh, S., Zali, F., Zahedifard, F., Rahmati, J., Kamyab, K., Ghandi, N., Zamanian, A., Reza Tohidinik, H., Muller, I., Kropf, P., Rafati, S., 2016. Comparing acute and chronic human cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania major and Leishmania tropica focusing on arginase activity. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology 30, 2118–2121. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdv.13838
Motazedian, M., Fakhar, M., Motazedian, M.H., Hatam, G., Mikaeili, F., 2008. A urine-based polymerase chain reaction method for the diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in immunocompetent patients. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease 60, 151–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2007.09.001
Mugasa, C.M., Laurent, T., Schoone, G.J., Basiye, F.L., Saad, A.A., El Safi, S., Kager, P.A., Schallig, H.D.F.H., 2010. Simplified molecular detection of leishmania parasites in various clinical samples from patients with leishmaniasis. Parasites and Vectors 3, 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-3-13
Mukhtar, M., Ali, S.S., Boshara, S.A., Albertini, A., Monnerat, S., Bessell, P., Mori, Y., Kubota, Y., Ndung’u, J.M., Cruz, I., 2018. Sensitive and less invasive confirmatory diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in Sudan using loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 12, e0006264. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0006264
Ndao, M., 2009. Diagnosis of Parasitic Diseases: Old and New Approaches. Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Infectious Diseases 2009, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1155/2009/278246
Nyakundi, P.M., Muigai, R., Were, J.B.O., Oster, C.N., Gachihi, G.S., Kirigi, G., 1988. Congenital visceral leishmaniasis: Case report. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 82, 564. https://doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(88)90508-1
Nzelu, C.O., Gomez, E.A., Cáceres, A.G., Sakurai, T., Martini-Robles, L., Uezato, H., Mimori, T., Katakura, K., Hashiguchi, Y., Kato, H., 2014. Development of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification method for rapid mass-screening of sand flies for Leishmania infection. Acta Tropica 132, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2013.12.016
Nzelu, C.O., Kato, H., Peters, N.C., 2019. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): An advanced molecular point-of-care technique for the detection of Leishmania infection. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0007698
Ogado Ceasar Odiwuor, S., Ageed Saad, A., De Doncker, S., Maes, I., Laurent, T., El Safi, S., Mbuchi, M., Büscher, P., Dujardin, J.C., Van Der Auwera, G., 2011. Universal PCR assays for the differential detection of all Old World Leishmania species. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 30, 209–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-010-1071-3
Omachi, S., Matsumoto, Y., Goto, Y., 2017. Immunoglobulins in the pathophysiology of visceral leishmaniasis, in: Kala Azar in South Asia: Current Status and Sustainable Challenges, Second Edition. Springer International Publishing, pp. 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47101-3_16
Osorio, Y., Bonilla, D.L., Peniche, A.G., Melby, P.C., Travi, B.L., 2008. Pregnancy enhances the innate immune response in experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis through hormone-modulated nitric oxide production. Journal of Leukocyte Biology 83, 1413–1422. https://doi.org/10.1189/jlb.0207130
Owens, S.D., Oakley, D.A., Marryott, K., Hatchett, W., Walton, R., Nolan, T.J., Newton, A., Steurer, F., Schantz, P., Giger, U., 2001. Transmission of visceral leishmaniasis through blood transfusions from infected English Foxhounds to anemic dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 219, 1076–1083. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2001.219.1076
Pagheh, A., Fakhar, M., Mesgarian, F., Gholami, S., Ahmadpour, E., 2014. An improved microculture method for diagnosis of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Journal of Parasitic Diseases 38, 347–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12639-013-0316-3
Paredes, R., Munoz, J., Diaz, I., Domingo, P., Gurgui, M., Clotet, B., 2003. Leishmaniasis in HIV infection. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine 49, 39. https://doi.org/10.4103/0022-3859.929
Pattabhi, S., Whittle, J., Mohamath, R., El-Safi, S., Moulton, G.G., Guderian, J.A., Colombara, D., Abdoon, A.O., Mukhtar, M.M., Mondal, D., Esfandiari, J., Kumar, S., Chun, P., Reed, S.G., Bhatia, A., 2010. Design, development and evaluation of rK28-based point-of-care tests for improving rapid diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000822
Pérez-Alvarez, M.J., Larreta, R., Alonso, C., Requena, J.M., 2001. Characterisation of a monoclonal antibody recognising specifically the HSP70 from Leishmania. Parasitology Research 87, 907–910. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004360100456
Phumee, A., Kraivichian, K., Chusri, S., Noppakun, N., Vibhagool, A., Sanprasert, V., Tampanya, V., Wilde, H., Siriyasatien, P., 2013. Short report: Detection of Leishmania siamensis DNA in saliva by polymerase chain reaction. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 89, 899–905. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.12-0612
Prasad, A., Kaur, S., Malla, N., Ganguly, N.K., Mahajan, R.C., 2001. Ca2+ signaling in the transformation of promastigotes to axenic amastigotes of Leishmania donovani. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry 224, 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011965109446
Prevention, C.-C. for D.C. and, 2019. CDC - Leishmaniasis.
Quicke, K.M., Bowen, J.R., Johnson, E.L., McDonald, C.E., Ma, H., O’Neal, J.T., Rajakumar, A., Wrammert, J., Rimawi, B.H., Pulendran, B., Schinazi, R.F., Chakraborty, R., Suthar, M.S., 2016. Zika Virus Infects Human Placental Macrophages. Cell Host and Microbe 20, 83–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2016.05.015
Rastrojo, A., García-Hernández, R., Vargas, P., Camacho, E., Corvo, L., Imamura, H., Dujardin, J.C., Castanys, S., Aguado, B., Gamarro, F., Requena, J.M., 2018. Genomic and transcriptomic alterations in Leishmania donovani lines experimentally resistant to antileishmanial drugs. International Journal for Parasitology: Drugs and Drug Resistance 8, 246–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpddr.2018.04.002
Ravindran, R., Anam, K., Bairagi, B.C., Saha, B., Pramanik, N., Guha, S.K., Goswami, R.P., Banerjee, D., Ali, N., 2004. Characterization of Immunoglobulin G and Its Subclass Response to Indian Kala-Azar Infection before and after Chemotherapy. Infection and Immunity 72, 863–870. https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.72.2.863-870.2004
Reithinger, R., Dujardin, J.C., 2007. Molecular diagnosis of leishmaniasis: Current status and future applications. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02029-06
Riera, C., Fisa, R., Lopez, P., Ribera, E., Carrió, J., Falcó, V., Molina, I., Gállego, M., Portús, M., 2004. Evaluation of a latex agglutination test (KAtex) for detection of Leishmania antigen in urine of patients with HIV-Leishmania coinfection: Value in diagnosis and post-treatment follow-up. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases 23, 899–904. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-004-1249-7
Robinson, D.P., Klein, S.L., 2012. Pregnancy and pregnancy-associated hormones alter immune responses and disease pathogenesis. Hormones and Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.02.023
Rosenthal, E., Marty, P., Pesce, A., 1991. Leishmania in bronchoalveolar lavage. Annals of Internal Medicine. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-114-12-1064_2
Ryan, J.R., Smithyman, A.M., Rajasekariah, G.-H., Hochberg, L., Stiteler, J.M., Martin, S.K., 2002. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on soluble promastigote antigen detects immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG antibodies in sera from cases of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis. Journal of clinical microbiology 40, 1037–43. https://doi.org/10.1128/jcm.40.3.1037-1043.2002
Saad, A.A., Ahmed, N.G., Osman, O.S., Al-Basheer, A.A., Hamad, A., Deborggraeve, S., Büscher, P., Schoone, G.J., Schallig, H.D., Laurent, T., Haleem, A., Osman, O.F., Eltom, A.M., Elbashir, M.I., El-Safi, S., 2010. Diagnostic accuracy of the Leishmania OligoC-TesT and NASBA-oligochromatography for diagnosis of leishmaniasis in Sudan. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0000776
Safar, 2017. Laboratory-acquired blood-borne parasites from accidental exposure. Journal of The Arab Society for Medical Research 12, 1. https://doi.org/10.4103/JASMR.JASMR_19_16
Salam, M.A., Khan, M.G.M., Mondal, D., 2011. Urine antigen detection by latex agglutination test for diagnosis and assessment of initial cure of visceral leishmaniasis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 105, 269–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trstmh.2010.12.007
Santos, A.L.S., 2014. Proteins and Proteomics of Leishmania and Trypanosoma, Subcellular Biochemistry. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7305-9
Sarkari, B., Chance, M., Hommel, M., 2002. Antigenuria in visceral leishmaniasis: Detection and partial characterisation of a carbohydrate antigen. Acta Tropica 82, 339–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-706X(02)00043-8
Sarkari, B., Rezaei, Z., Mohebali, M., 2018. Immunodiagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis: Current status and challenges: A review article. Iranian Journal of Parasitology.
Satow, M.M., Yamashiro-Kanashiro, E.H., Rocha, M.C., Oyafuso, L.K., Soler, R.C., Cotrim, P.C., Lindoso, J.A.L., 2013. Aplicação do kDNA-PCR para diagnóstico de rotina de leishmaniose tegumentar americana em um hospital de referência. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de Sao Paulo 55, 393–399. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0036-46652013000600004
Savoia, D., 2015. Recent updates and perspectives on leishmaniasis. Journal of Infection in Developing Countries 9, 588–596. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.6833
Schnian, G., Kuhls, K., Mauricio, I.L., 2011. Molecular approaches for a better understanding of the epidemiology and population genetics of Leishmania. Parasitology. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182010001538
Schnorr, D., Muniz, A.C., Passos, S., Guimaraes, L.H., Lago, E.L., Bacellar, O., Glesby, M.J., Carvalho, E.M., 2012. IFN-γ Production to Leishmania Antigen Supplements the Leishmania Skin Test in Identifying Exposure to L. braziliensis Infection. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001947
Serafim, T.D., Figueiredo, A.B., Costa, P.A.C., Marques-da-Silva, E.A., Gonçalves, R., de Moura, S.A.L., Gontijo, N.F., da Silva, S.M., Michalick, M.S.M., Meyer-Fernandes, J.R., de Carvalho, R.P., Uliana, S.R.B., Fietto, J.L.R., Afonso, L.C.C., 2012. Leishmania Metacyclogenesis Is Promoted in the Absence of Purines. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001833
Shlomai, J., 1994. The assembly of kinetoplast DNA. Parasitology Today 10, 341–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-4758(94)90244-5
Singh, S., 2006. New developments in diagnosis of leishmaniasis, Indian J Med Res.
Singh, S., Sivakumar, R., 2003. Recent advances in the diagnosis of leishmaniasis. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine 49, 55–60. https://doi.org/10.4103/0022-3859.927
Sivakumar, R., Sharma, P., Chang, K.P., Singh, S., 2006. Cloning, expression, and purification of a novel recombinant antigen from Leishmania donovani. Protein Expression and Purification 46, 156–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pep.2005.07.027
Skalický, T., Dobáková, E., Wheeler, R.J., Tesařová, M., Flegontov, P., Jirsová, D., Votýpka, J., Yurchenko, V., Ayala, F.J., Lukeš, J., 2017. Extensive flagellar remodeling during the complex life cycle of Paratrypanosoma, an early-branching trypanosomatid. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114, 11757–11762. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1712311114
Soto, M., Requena, J.M., Quijada, L., Alonso, C., 1996. Specific serodiagnosis of human leishmaniasis with recombinant Leishmania P2 acidic ribosomal proteins. Clinical and diagnostic laboratory immunology 3, 387–91.
Sousa, A.Q., Pompeu, M.M.L., Frutuoso, M.S., Lima, J.W.O., Tinel, J.M.B.M., Pearson, R.D., 2014. Short report: Press Imprint Smear: A rapid, simple, and cheap method for the diagnosis of cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 91, 905–907. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.14-0160
Srivastava, P., Mehrotra, S., Tiwary, P., Chakravarty, J., Sundar, S., 2011. Diagnosis of Indian Visceral Leishmaniasis by Nucleic Acid Detection Using PCR. PLoS ONE 6, e19304. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0019304
Srividya, G., Kulshrestha, A., Singh, R., Salotra, P., 2012. Diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis: Developments over the last decade. Parasitology Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-011-2680-1
Strimbu, K., Tavel, J.A., 2010. What are biomarkers? Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS. https://doi.org/10.1097/COH.0b013e32833ed177
Suffia, I., Reckling, S.K., Salay, G., Belkaid, Y., 2005. A Role for CD103 in the Retention of CD4 + CD25 + T reg and Control of Leishmania major Infection . The Journal of Immunology 174, 5444–5455. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.174.9.5444
Sundar, S., Chakravarty, J., Agarwal, D., Rai, M., Murray, H.W., 2010. Single-Dose Liposomal Amphotericin B for Visceral Leishmaniasis in India. New England Journal of Medicine 362, 504–512. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0903627
Sundar, S., Rai, M., 2002. Laboratory diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 9, 951–958. https://doi.org/10.1128/CDLI.9.5.951-958.2002
Taslimi, Y., Sadeghipour, P., Habibzadeh, S., Mashayekhi, V., Mortazavi, H., Müller, I., Lane, M.E., Kropf, P., Rafati, S., 2017. A novel non-invasive diagnostic sampling technique for cutaneous leishmaniasis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 11, e0005750. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0005750
Theppeang, K., Glass, T.A., Bandeen-Roche, K., Todd, A.C., Rohde, C.A., Schwartz, B.S., 2008. Gender and race/ethnicity differences in lead dose biomarkers. American Journal of Public Health 98, 1248–1255. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2007.118505
Toepp, A.J., Monteiro, G.R.G., Coutinho, J.F.V., Lima, A.L., Larson, M., Wilson, G., Grinnage-Pulley, T., Bennett, C., Mahachi, K., Anderson, B., Ozanne, M. V., Anderson, M., Fowler, H., Parrish, M., Willardson, K., Saucier, J., Tyrell, P., Palmer, Z., Buch, J., Chandrashekar, R., Brown, G.D., Oleson, J.J., Jeronimo, S.M.B., Petersen, C.A., 2019. Comorbid infections induce progression of visceral leishmaniasis. Parasites and Vectors 12, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3312-3
Toz, S.O., Culha, G., Zeyrek, F.Y., Ertabaklar, H., Alkan, M.Z., Vardarli, A.T., Gunduz, C., Ozbel, Y., 2013. A Real-Time ITS1-PCR Based Method in the Diagnosis and Species Identification of Leishmania Parasite from Human and Dog Clinical Samples in Turkey. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 7. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002205
Tsukayama, P., Núñez, J.H., De Los Santos, M., Soberón, V., Lucas, C.M., Matlashewski, G., Llanos-Cuentas, A., Ore, M., Baldeviano, G.C., Edgel, K.A., Lescano, A.G., Graf, P.C.F., Bacon, D.J., 2013. A FRET-Based Real-Time PCR Assay to Identify the Main Causal Agents of New World Tegumentary Leishmaniasis. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 7, e1956. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001956
Turchetti, A.P., Souza, T.D., Paixão, T.A., Santos, R.L., 2014. Sexual and vertical transmission of visceral leishmaniasis. Journal of Infection in Developing Countries. https://doi.org/10.3855/jidc.4108
Turco, S.J., Saraiva, E.M., Pimenta, P.F., 1994. The role of the lipophosphoglycan of Leishmania in vector competence. Parasitology 108, S55–S62. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182000075727
Van Der Auwera, G., Ravel, C., Verweij, J.J., Bart, A., Schon̈ian, G., Felger, I., 2014. Evaluation of four single-locus markers for leishmania species discrimination by sequencing. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52, 1098–1104. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.02936-13
Veras, P.S.T., De Menezes, J.P.B., 2016. Using proteomics to understand how Leishmania parasites survive inside the host and establish infection. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17081270
Vijayamahantesh, Amit, A., Dikhit, M.R., Pandey, R.K., Singh, K., Mishra, R., Das, V.N.R., Das, P., Bimal, S., 2016. Elevated serum ADA activity as a marker for diagnosis and prognosis of visceral leishmaniasis and post Kala-Azar Dermal leishmaniasis in Indian patients. PLoS ONE 11, e0154117. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0154117
Wegmann, T.G., Lin, H., Guilbert, L., Mosmann, T.R., 1993. Bidirectional cytokine interactions in the maternal-fetal relationship: is successful pregnancy a TH2 phenomenon? Immunology Today. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-5699(93)90235-D
World Health Organization, 2012. Research priorities for Chagas disease, human African trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis. World Health Organization technical report series.
Yadav, T.P., Gupta, H., Satteya, U., Kumar, R., Mittal, V., 1989. Congenital kala-azar. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 83, 535–537. https://doi.org/10.1080/00034983.1989.11812383
Zerpa, O., Padrón-Nieves, M., Ponte-Sucre, A., 2018. American tegumentary leishmaniasis, in: Drug Resistance in Leishmania Parasites: Consequences, Molecular Mechanisms and Possible Treatments. Springer International Publishing, pp. 177–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74186-4_8
Zeyrek, F.Y., Korkmaz, M., Özbel, Y., 2007. Serodiagnosis of anthroponotic cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL) caused by Leishmania tropica in Sanliurfa Province, Turkey, where ACL is highly endemic. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 14, 1409–1415. https://doi.org/10.1128/CVI.00133-07
Zijlstra, D.E., Siddig Ali, M., El-Hassan, A.M., El-Toum, I.A., Satti, M., Ghalib, H.W., Kager, P.A., 1992. Kala-azar: A comparative study of parasitological methods and the direct agglutination test in diagnosis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 86, 505–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(92)90086-R
Zilberstein, D., Shapira, M., 1994. The role of pH and temperature in the development of Leishmania parasites. Annual review of microbiology 48, 449–70. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.mi.48.100194.002313
Τα περισσότερο διαβασμένα άρθρα του ίδιου συγγραφέα(s)