The influence of work-family interface in function of work and life satisfaction. The teachers’ case

PDF (ελληνικά)
Published: Feb 5, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.12681/psy_hps.29154
Keywords:
family satisfaction work engagement work-family interface work satisfaction
Christos Bakyrtsis
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7057-6070
Abstract
The study of the complex relationship between work and family is the subject of this research, using as framework the conservation of resource theory. The investigation of this relationship was based on a model, which incorporates both the negative and the positive aspects of the work-family interface. It was tested whether this interface can act as predictive factor of work and life satisfaction. In addition, it was examined whether the variable family support, work support, and work engagement could perform the role of a mediator. The research sample consisted of 216 Greek teachers. The results confirmed the structural validity and reliability of the multidimensional structure research tool. They also confirmed the results of a large number of studies that have reported a negative correlation between negative aspects of the work-family relationship with work satisfaction, and a positive correlation between positive aspects of the work-family relationship in relation to life satisfaction. Finally, in terms of the role of mediators, the model confirmed only the part of work engagement and not the role of the organizational mediator of work and family support in the field of teaching.
Article Details
  • Section
  • RESEARCH PAPERS
Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

The journal PSYCHOLOGY adopts a Platinum open-access policy. Submission, processing or publication costs are waived by the Hellenic Psychological Society. Papers published in the journal PSYCHOLOGY are licensed under a 'Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International' licence. The authors reserve the copyright of their work and grant the journal the right of its first publication. Third-party licensees are allowed to use the published paper immediately after publication as they wish, provided they retain the defined by the license copyright formalities, regarding the reference to its author(s) and its initial publication in the journal PSYCHOLOGY. Moreover, any adjusted work should be shared under the same reuse rights, so with the same CC license.

Downloads
References
Akram, H., Malik, N., Atta, M., & Νadeem, Μ. (2014). Work-Family Enrichment as Predictors of Work Outcomes among Teachers. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social Sciences (PJCSS), 8(3), 733–743.
Allen, T. D., Herst, D. E. L., Bruck, C. S., & Sutton, M. (2000). Consequences associated with work-to-family conflict: A review and agenda for future research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(2), 278–308. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.5.2.278
Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Dollard, M. F. (2008). How job demands affect partners’ experience of exhaustion: Integrating work-family conflict and crossover theory. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(4), 901–911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.4.901
Bakker, A. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2010). Work Engagement: A Handbook of Essential Theory and Research (1st Edition). Psychology Press.
Baniya, S. (2019). Predictors and Outcomes of Work-Family Enrichment: An Empirical Study of Married Private School Teachers. IUP Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18(3), 63–89.
Bass, B., Butler, A., Grzywacz, J., & Linney, K. (2008). Work–family conflict and job satisfaction: Family resources as a buffer. Journal of Family and Consumer Science, 100(1), 24–30.
Beehr, T. (2015). Psychological Stress in the Workplace (1st Edition). Routledge.
Behson, S. J. (2002). Coping with family-to-work conflict: The role of informal work accommodations to family. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7(4), 324–341. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.7.4.324
Brayfield, A. H., & Rothe, H. F. (1951). An index of job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 35(5), 307–311. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0055617
Byrne, B. M. (1998). Structural Equation Modeling With Lisrel, Prelis, and Simplis: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming (1st Edition). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Caplan, G. (1974). Support systems and community mental health: Lectures on concept development. Behavioral Publications.
Carlson, D. S., Kacmar, K. M., Wayne, J. H., & Grzywacz, J. G. (2006). Measuring the positive side of the work–family interface: Development and validation of a work–family enrichment scale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(1), 131–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2005.02.002
Carlson, D. S., & Perrewé, P. L. (1999). The Role of Social Support in the Stressor-Strain Relationship: An Examination of Work-Family Conflict: Journal of Management, 25(4), 513–540. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 014920639902500403
Celik, S. S., Celik, Y., Hikmet, N., & Khan, M. M. (2018). Factors Affecting Life Satisfaction of Older Adults in Turkey. International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 87(4), 392–414. https://doi.org/10.1177 /0091415017740677
Chan, X. W., Kalliath, T., Brough, P., Siu, O.-L., O’Driscoll, M. P., & Timms, C. (2016). Work–family enrichment and satisfaction: The mediating role of self-efficacy and work–life balance. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 27(15), 1755–1776. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1075574
Choi, H. J., & Kim, Y. T. (2012). Work-family conflict, work-family facilitation, and job outcomes in the Korean hotel industry. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 24(7), 1011–1028. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596111211258892
Cinamon, R. G., & Rich, Y. (2005). Work–family conflict among female teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(4), 365–378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2004.06.009
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. R. B. (2007). Research Methods in Education. Routledge.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (4th Edition). SAGE Publications, Inc.
Dalton, D., & Ortegren, M. (2011). Gender Differences in Ethics Research: The Importance of Controlling for the Social Desirability Response Bias. Journal of Business Ethics, 103(1), 73–93. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-0843-8
Davis, K., & Newstrom, J. W. (1985). Human Behavior at Work: Organizational Behavior (2nd Edition). McGraw-Hill College.
De Simone, S., Lampis, J., Lasio, D., Serri, F., Cicotto, G., & Putzu, D. (2014). Influences of Work-Family Interface on Job and Life Satisfaction. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 9(4), 831–861. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11482-013-9272-4
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13
Diener, E., Oishi, S., & Lucas, R. E. (2003). Personality, Culture, and Subjective Well-Being: Emotional and Cognitive Evaluations of Life. Annual Review of Psychology, 54(1), 403–425. https://doi.org/10.1146/ annurev.psych.54.101601.145056
Diener, E., Suh, E. M., Lucas, R. E., & Smith, H. L. (1999). Subjective well-being: Three decades of progress. Psychological Bulletin, 125(2), 276–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.2.276
Durand, M. (2015). The OECD Better Life Initiative: How’s Life? and the Measurement of Well-Being. Review of Income and Wealth, 61(1), 4–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12156
Easterlin, R. A. (1974). Does Economic Growth Improve the Human Lot? Some Empirical Evidence. In P. A. David & M. W. Reder (Eds.), Nations and Households in Economic Growth (pp. 89–125). Academic Press.
Eisenberger, R., & Stinglhamber, F. (2011). Perceived organizational support fostering enthusiastic and productive employees. American Psychological Association.
Erdamar, G., & Demirel, H. (2014). Investigation of Work-family, Family-work Conflict of the Teachers. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 116, 4919–4924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.1050
Fiedler, K. (1991). The tricky nature of skewed frequency tables: An information loss account of distinctiveness-based illusory correlations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(1), 24–36. https://doi.org/10. 1037/0022-3514.60.1.24
Fiksenbaum, L. M. (2014). Supportive work–family environments: Implications for work–family conflict and well-being. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(5), 653–672. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2013.796314
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1988). Manual for the ways of coping questionnaire. Consulting Psychologists Press.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Kahneman, D. (1993). Duration neglect in retrospective evaluations of affective episodes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(1), 45–55. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65.1.45
Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M. L. (1992). Antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict: Testing a model of the work-family interface. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(1), 65–78. https://doi.org /10.1037/0021-9010.77.1.65
Frone, M. R. (2003). Work-family balance. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 143–162). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10474-007
Geurts, S. A. E., & Demerouti, E. (2003). Work/non work interface: A review of theories and findings. In M. J. Schabracq, J. A. M. Winnubst, & C. Cooper (Eds.), The Handbook of Work and Health Psychology (2nd Edition, pp. 279–312). Wiley.
Grapentine, T. (2000). Path analysis vs. Structural equation modeling. Marketing Research, 12(3), 12–20.
Greenhaus, J. H., Allen, T. D., & Spector, P. E. (2006). Health Consequences of Work–Family Conflict: The Dark Side of the Work–Family Interface. In P. L. Perrewé & D. C. Ganster (Eds.), Employee Health, Coping and Methodologies (Vol. 5, pp. 61–98). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1479-3555(05)05002-X
Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of Conflict between Work and Family Roles. The Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 76–88. https://doi.org/10.2307/258214
Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. N. (2003). When work and family collide: Deciding between competing role demands. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 90(2), 291–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0749-5978(02)00519-8
Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. N. (2006). When Work and Family Are Allies: A Theory of Work-Family Enrichment. The Academy of Management Review, 31(1), 72–92. https://doi.org/10.2307/20159186
Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. N. (2012). The family-relatedness of work decisions: A framework and agenda for theory and research. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(2), 246–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb. 2011.12.007
Greenhaus, J., Ziegert, J., & Allen, T. (2012). When family-supportive supervision matters: Relations between multiple sources of support and work–family balance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(2), 266–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.10.008
Haizlip, J., May, N., Schorling, J., Williams, A., & Plews-Ogan, M. (2012). Perspective: The Negativity Bias, Medical Education, and the Culture of Academic Medicine: Why Culture Change Is Hard. Academic Medicine, 87(9), 1205–1209. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0b013e3182628f03
Hakanen, J. J., Peeters, M. C. W., & Perhoniemi, R. (2011). Enrichment processes and gain spirals at work and at home: A 3-year cross-lagged panel study. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84(1), 8–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.2010.02014.x
Hayes, A. F., & Coutts, J. J. (2020). Use Omega Rather than Cronbach’s Alpha for Estimating Reliability. But…. Communication Methods and Measures, 14(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2020.1718629
Hill, E. J. (2005). Work-Family Facilitation and Conflict, Working Fathers and Mothers, Work-Family Stressors and Support. Journal of Family Issues, 26(6), 793–819. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X05277542
Hobfoll, S. (1989). Conservation of Resources: A New Attempt at Conceptualizing Stress. The American Psychologist, 44(3), 513–524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513
Hobfoll, S. E., & Stokes, J. P. (1988). The process and mechanics of social support. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14(2), 182–192.
Hui, S. A., & Grandner, M. A. (2015). Trouble Sleeping Associated With Lower Work Performance and Greater Health Care Costs: Longitudinal Data From Kansas State Employee Wellness Program. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 57(10), 1031–1038. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.000000 0000000534
Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692–724. https://doi.org/10.2307/256287
Kaliski, B. S. (2007). Encyclopedia of business and finance (2nd edition). Macmillan Reference USA.
Kalliath, P., Hughes, M., & Newcombe, P. (2012). When work and family are in conflict: Impact on psychological strain experienced by social workers in Australia. Australian Social Work, 65(3), 355–371. https://doi.org/10.1080/0312407X.2011.625035
Kanungo, R. N. (1982). Measurement of job and work involvement. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67(3), 341–349. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.67.3.341
Karatepe, O. M., & Bekteshi, L. (2008). Antecedents and outcomes of work-family facilitation and family-work facilitation among frontline hotel employees. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 27(4), 517–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2007.09.004
Karimi, L., & Nouri, A. (2009). Do Work Demands and Resources Predict Work-to-Family Conflict and Facilitation? A Study of Iranian Male Employees. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 30(2), 193–202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-009-9143-1
Karimi, Q., Jomehri, F., Asadzade, H., & Sohrabi, F. (2012). Consequences of Conflict between Work and Family among Iranian Female Teachers. Journal of Basic and Applied Scientific Research, 2(2), 1869–1875.
Kim, J. H. (2013). Productive activity and life satisfaction in Korean elderly women. Journal of Women & Aging, 25(1), 80–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952841.2012.717850
King, L. A., Mattimore, L. K., King, D. W., & Adams, G. A. (1995). Family Support Inventory for Workers: A new measure of perceived social support from family members. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16(3), 235–258. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030160306
Kinnunen, U., Feldt, T., Geurts, S., & Pulkkinen, L. (2006). Types of work-family interface: Well-being correlates of negative and positive spillover between work and family. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 47(2), 149–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2006.00502.x
Kline, R. (2015). Principles And Practice Of Structural Equation Modeling. In Guilford Press. (4th Edition). Guilford Press.
Klerk, M. D., Nel, J. A., & Koekemoer, E. (2015). Work-to-family enrichment: Influences of work resources, work engagement and satisfaction among employees within the South African context. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 25(6), 537–546. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2015.1124606
Lagoumintzis, G., Vlachopoulos, G., & Koutsogiannis, K. (2015). Μεθοδολογία της έρευνας στις επιστήμες υγείας.
Lavassani, K. M., & Movahedi, B. (2014). Developments in theories and measures of work-family relationships: From conflict to balance. Contemporary Research on Organization Management and Administration, 2(1), 6–19.
Leroy, H., Anseel, F., Gardner, W. L., & Sels, L. (2015). Authentic Leadership, Authentic Followership, Basic Need Satisfaction, and Work Role Performance: A Cross-Level Study. Journal of Management, 41(6), 1677–1697. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206312457822
Lindert, J., Bain, P. A., Kubzansky, L. D., & Stein, C. (2015). Well-being measurement and the WHO health policy Health 2010: Systematic review of measurement scales. European Journal of Public Health, 25(4), 731–740. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cku193
MacDermid, S. M. (2005). (Re)Considering Conflict Between Work and Family. In E. E. Kossek & S. J. Lambert (Eds.), Work and life integration: Organizational, cultural, and individual perspectives (pp. 19–40). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Magee, C. A., Robinson, L. D., & McGregor, A. (2018). The Work-Family Interface and Sleep Quality. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 16(6), 601–610. https://doi.org/10.1080/15402002.2016.1266487
Maher, J. P., Pincus, A. L., Ram, N., & Conroy, D. E. (2015). Daily physical activity and life satisfaction across adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 51(10), 1407–1419. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000037
Mardia, K. V. (1970). Measures of Multivariate Skewness and Kurtosis with Applications. Biometrika, 57(3), 519–530. https://doi.org/10.2307/2334770
Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52(1), 397–422. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397
Masuda, A. D., McNall, L. A., Allen, T. D., & Nicklin, J. M. (2012). Examining the constructs of work-to-family enrichment and positive spillover. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(1), 197–210. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.jvb.2011.06.002
May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(1), 11–37. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317904322915892
McDonald, R. P. (1999). Test Theory: A Unified Treatment. Lawrence Erlbaum.
McNall, L. A., Nicklin, J. M., & Masuda, A. D. (2010). A Meta-Analytic Review of the Consequences Associated with Work-Family Enrichment. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25(3), 381–396. https://doi.org/10.1 007/s10869-009-9141-1
Michel, R., & Michel, C. (2015). Work Schedule Flexibility, Work-Family Enrichment and Job Satisfaction. Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 25(1), 78–90.
Mihelic, K. K., & Tekavcic, M. (2014). Work-Family Conflict: A Review Of Antecedents And Outcomes. International Journal of Management & Information Systems, 18(1), 15–26. https://doi.org/10.19030 /ijmis.v18i1.8335
Muijs, D. (2010). Doing quantitative research in education with SPSS. (2nd edition). SAGE Publications.
Netemeyer, R. G., Boles, J. S., & McMurrian, R. (1996). Development and validation of work–family conflict and family–work conflict scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(4), 400–410. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.81.4.400
Noah, Y., & Steve, M. (2012). Work Environment and Job Attitude among Employees in a Nigerian Work Organization. Journal of Sustainable Society, 1(2), 36–43. https://doi.org/10.11634/21682585140398
Paustian‐Underdahl, S. C., & Halbesleben, J. R. B. (2014). Examining the influence of climate, supervisor guidance, and behavioral integrity on work–family conflict: A demands and resources approach. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35(4), 447–463. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1883
Post, C., DiTomaso, N., Farris, G. F., & Cordero, R. (2009). Work–family conflict and turnover intentions among scientists and engineers working in R&D. Journal of Business and Psychology, 24(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-009-9089-1
Pugno, M., & Depedri, S. (2009). Job Performance and Job Satisfaction: An Integrated Survey. Economiapolitica, 27(1), 175–210. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1402566
Rahman, M. S. (2017). The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches and Methods in Language “Testing and Assessment” Research: A Literature Review. Journal of Education and Learning, 6(1), 102–112. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v6n1p102
Rathi, N., & Barath, M. (2013). Work‐family conflict and job and family satisfaction: Moderating effect of social support among police personnel. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 32(4), 438–454. https://doi.org/10.1108/EDI-10-2012-0092
Rothbard, N. (2001). Enriching or Depleting? The Dynamics of Engagement in Work and Family Roles. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46(4), 655–684. https://doi.org/10.2307/3094827
Σταυρόπουλος, Β. (2019). Η αφοσίωση των εκπαιδευτικών ειδικής αγωγής στο σχολείο που υπηρετούν: Η υποστηρικτική ηγετική συμπεριφορά του διευθυντή του σχολείου, η επαγγελματική ικανοποίηση και το συναίσθημα στο χώρο εργασίας ως προβλεπτικοί παράγοντες. Πανελλήνιο Συνέδριο Επιστημών Εκπαίδευσης, 1, 1298–1308. https://doi.org/10.12681/edusc.1744
Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Van Rhenen, W. (2009). How changes in job demands and resources predict burnout, work engagement and sickness absenteeism. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(7), 893–917. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.595
Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., González-romá, V., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The Measurement of Engagement and Burnout: A Two Sample Confirmatory Factor Analytic Approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3(1), 71–92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326
Selvarajan, T. T., Cloninger, P. A., & Singh, B. (2013). Social support and work–family conflict: A test of an indirect effects model. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 486–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.07.004
Shockley, K. M., & Singla, N. (2011). Reconsidering Work—Family Interactions and Satisfaction: A Meta-Analysis: Journal of Management, 37(3), 861–888. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310394864
Simone, S. D., Agus, M., Lasio, D., & Serri, F. (2018). Development and Validation of a Measure of Work-Family Interface. Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 34(3), 169–179. https://doi.org/10.5093/jwop2 018a19
Siu, O. ling, Lu, J. fang, Brough, P., Lu, C. qin, Bakker, A. B., Kalliath, T., O’Driscoll, M., Phillips, D. R., Chen, W. qing, Lo, D., Sit, C., & Shi, K. (2010). Role resources and work-family enrichment: The role of work engagement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77(3), 470–480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.06.007
Spector, P. E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes, and consequences. Sage Publications, Inc.
Stiglitz, J., Sen, A., & Fitoussi, J. (2009). The Measurement of Economic Performance and Social Progress Revisited: Reflections and Overview. OFCE Working Documents.
Suazo, M. M., Turnley, W., & Mai-Dalton, R. R. (2008). Characteristics of the supervisor-subordinate relationship as predictors of psychological contract breach. Journal of Managerial Issues, 20(3), 295–312.
Tett, R. P., & Meyer, J. P. (1993). Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Turnover Intention, and Turnover: Path Analyses Based on Meta-Analytic Findings. Personnel Psychology, 46(2), 259–293. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1993.tb00874.x
Thompson, S. C. (1999). Illusions of Control: How We Overestimate Our Personal Influence. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8(6). https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00044
Torp, S., Lysfjord, L., & Midje, H. H. (2018). Workaholism and work–family conflict among university academics. Higher Education, 76(6), 1071–1090. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-018-0247-0
Yang, S., Liu, D., Liu, H., Zhang, J., & Duan, Z. (2017). Relationship of work-family conflict, self-reported social support and job satisfaction to burnout syndrome among medical workers in southwest China: A cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 12(2), e0171679. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171679
Ugoani, J. (2013). Emotional Intelligence and Balancing Work-Family-Conflict Among Dual-Career-Parents in Nigeria. Academy of Business & Scientific Research, 2(5), 575–582. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2338545
Van Sonderen, E., Sanderman, R., & Coyne, J. C. (2013). Ineffectiveness of Reverse Wording of Questionnaire Items: Let’s Learn from Cows in the Rain. PLoS ONE, 8(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0068967
Veenhoven, R. (1991). Is happiness relative? Social Indicators Research, 24(1), 1–34. https://doi.org/10 .1007/BF00292648
Veenhoven, R. (2009). How Do We Assess How Happy We Are? Tenets, Implications and Tenability of Three Theories. In A. K. Dutt & B. Radcliff (Eds.), Happiness, economics and politics: Towards a multi-disciplinary approach (pp. 45–70). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. Wiley.
Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2009). Reciprocal relationships between job resources, personal resources, and work engagement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74(3), 235–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2008.11.003
Wagena, E., & Geurts, S. A. E. (2000). SWING. Development and validation of the “Survey Work-Home Interference—Nijmegen.” Gedrag & Gezondheid: Tijdschrift Voor Psychologie En Gezondheid, 28(3), 138–158.
Wayne, J. H. (2009). Reducing conceptual confusion: Clarifying the positive side of work and family. In D. R. Crane & E. J. Hill (Eds.), Handbook of Families and Work: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (pp. 105–140). University Press of America.
Whitehead, D. L. (2008). Historical Trend in Work-Family: The Evolution of Earning and Caring. In K. Korabik, D. S. Lero, & D. L. Whitehead (Eds.), Handbook of Work-Family Integration: Research, Theory, and Best Practices (pp. 13–36). Elsevier Science & Technology Books.