D-dimer as a diagnostic tool for canine thromboembolic disorders

PDF
Published: Nov 13, 2017
DOI: https://doi.org/10.12681/jhvms.14876
Keywords:
D-dimers dog DIC thromboembolism
G. D. GIANNOULOPOULOS (Γ.Δ. ΓΙΑΝΝΟΥΛΟΠΟΥΛΟΣ)
Clinic of Medicine, School of Veterìnary Medicine, University of Thessaly
L. V. ATHANASIOU (Λ.Β. ΑΘΑΝΑΣΙΟΥ)
Clinic of Medicine, School of Veterìnary Medicine, University of Thessaly
Z. S. POLIZOPOULOU (Ζ.Σ. ΠΟΛΥΖΟΠΟΥΛΟΥ)
Diagnostic Laboratory, Faculty of Veterìnary Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki
Abstract

D-dimers are small protein fragments present in the blood after a blood clot is degraded by plasmin. During the fibrin(ogen) degradation, a number of products are produced called fibrin(ogen) degradation products (FDPs). D-dimers are part of the FDPs, formed as a result of plasmin activity on cross-linked fibrin. Thus, D-dimers indicate the activity of both thrombin and plasmin and are specific markers for fibrinolysis. D-dimer measurement is widely used in the diagnostic work-up of human patients as the most sensitive test to diagnose pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE) and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) and it is, also, considered essential in the evaluation of antithrombotic therapy. During the last decade, there was considerable research regarding the potential utility of D-dimer in veterinary medicine, particularly in canine and equine species. In dogs, D-dimer plasma concentrations can be used to rapidly detect the thrombotic complications and DIC associated with many systemic diseases (high quantitative D-dimer levels). The symptoms of PTE are subtle and the confirmation of diagnosis with routine hematological tests can be difficult, thus jeopardizing the patient's survival. Several techniques have been employed for the detection of D-dimer; the immunoenzymatic assay (ELISA), the immuno-turbidimetric assay and several latex agglutination assays are more commonly used.

Article Details
  • Section
  • Review Articles

Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:

· Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.

· Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g. post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.

· Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (preferably in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.

Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Adam, S. S., Ν. S. Key & C. S. Greenberg (2009) D-dimer antigen: current concepts and future prospects. Blood, 113,2878-87.
Allison, R. & J. Meinkoth (2007) Clinical Pathology and Diagnostic Techniques. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Small Animal Practice, 37,203-219.
Armengou, L., L. Monreal, I. Tarancon, M. Navarro, J. Rios & D. Segura (2008) Plasma D-dimer concentration in sick newborn foals. J Vet Intern Med, 22, 411-7.
Bach-Gansmo, E. T., S. Halvorsen, H. C. Godai & Ο. H. Skjonsberg (1996) D-dimers are degraded by human neutrophil elastase. Thromb Res, 82,177-86.
Ben, S. Q., S. S. Ni, H. H. Shen, Y. X. Shi, S. Β. Huang, J. Η. Xu & J. F. Huang (2007) The dynamic changes of LDH isoenzyme 3 and Ddimer following pulmonary thromboembolism in canine. Thromb Res, 120,575-83.
Boutet, P., F. Heath, J. Archer & E. Villiers (2009) Comparison of quantitative immunoturbidimetric and semiquantitative latexagglutination assays for D-dimer measurement in canine plasma. Vet Clin Pathol, 38,78-82.
Brazzell, J. L. & D. L. Borjesson (2007) Evaluation of plasma antithrombin activity and D-dimer concentration in populations of healthy cats, clinically ill cats, and cats with cardiomyopathy. Vet
Clin Pathol, 36,79-84.
Brooks, B. 2006. Coagulation Diseases. In Saunders Manual of Small Animal Practice, ed. Saunders, 256-264. St Louis: Elsevier Inc.
Caldin, M., T. Furlanello & G. Lubas (2000) Validation of an immunoturbidimetric D-dimer assay in canine citrated plasma. Vet Clin Pathol, 29,51-54.
Ceron, J. J., E. Carli, S. Tasca, S. Martinez-Subiela & M. Caldin (2008) Evaluation of EDTA hematology tubes for collection of blood samples for tests of secondary hemostasis in dogs. Am J Vet Res, 69,1141-7.
Couto, C. 2003. Disorders of hemostasis. In Small Animal Internal Medicine, eds. R. Nelson & C. Couto, 1185-1199.
St Louis, Missouri: Mosby. de Laforcade, A. M., L. M. Freeman, S. P. Shaw, M. B. Brooks, E. A.
Rozanski & J. E. Rush (2003) Hemostatic changes in dogs with naturally occurring sepsis. J Vet Intern Med, 17, 674-9.
Dewhurst, E., S. Cue, E. Crawford & K. Papasouliotis (2008) A retrospective study of canine D-dimer concentrations measured using an immunometric "Point-of-Care" test. J Small Anim Pract,
,344-8.
Feldman, Β. e. a. Recognition and Treatment of Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation. In Kirk's Current Veterinary Therapy XIII, ed. Bonagura, 190-194. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. Furlanello, T., M. Caldin, A. Stocco, E. Tudone, V. Tranquillo, G. Lubas & L. Solano-Gallego (2006) Stability of stored canine plasma for hemostasis testing. Vet Clin Pathol, 35, 204-7.
Griffin, Α., M. B. Callan, F. S. Shofer & U. Giger (2003) Evaluation of a canine D-dimer point-of-care test kit for use in samples obtained from dogs with disseminated intravascular coagulation, thromboembolic disease, and hemorrhage. Am J Vet Res, 64,1562-9.
Hackner, G. 2009a. Bleeding Disorders. In Kirk's Current Veterinary Therapy, ed. Saunders, 507-514. St Louis: Elsevier Inc.
Hackner, G. 2009b. Pulmonary Thromboembolism. In Kirk's Current Veterinary Therapy, ed. Saunders, 689-697. St Louis: Elsevier Inc.
Irmak, K. & K. Turgut (2005) Disseminated intravascular coagulation in cattle with abomasal displacement. Vet Res Commun, 29, 61-8.
Kristensen, A. T., Β. Wiinberg, L. R. Jessen, E. Andreasen & A. L. Jensen (2008) Evaluation of human recombinant tissue factoractivated thromboelastography in 49 dogs with neoplasia. J Vet
Intern Med, 22,140-7.
Lehman, C M., L. W. Wilson & G. M. Rodgers (2004) Analytic validation and clinical evaluation of the STA LIATEST immunoturbidimetric D-dimer assay for the diagnosis of disseminated intravascular coagulation. Am J Clin Pathol, 122,178-84.
Marsh, J. J., R. G. Konopka, I. M. Lang, H. Y. Wang, C. Pedersen, P. Chiles, C. F. Reilly & Κ. M. Moser (1994) Suppression of thrombolysis in a canine model of pulmonary embolism. Circulation, 90,3091-7.
Monreal, L. (2003) D-dimer as a new test for the diagnosis of DIC and thromboembolic disease. J Vet Intern Med, 17, 757-9.
Nelson, O. L. & C. Andreasen (2003) The utility of plasma D-dimer to identify thromboembolic disease in dogs. J Vet Intern Med, 17,830-4.
Perrier, Α., S. Desmarais, C. Goehring, P. de Moerloose, A. Morabia, P. F. Unger, D. Slosman, A. Junod & H. Bounameaux (1997) Ddimer testing for suspected pulmonary embolism in outpatients.
Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 156, 492-6.
Righini, M. & A. Perrier (2008) [D-dimers measurement to predict the risk of thromboembolic recurrence]. Rev Med Interne, 29, 476-81.
Righini, M., A. Perrier, P. De Moerloose & H. Bounameaux (2008) DDimer for venous thromboembolism diagnosis: 20 years later. J Thromb Haemost, 6,1059-71.
Sandholm, M., A. Vidovic, A. Puotunen-Reinert, S. Sankari, K. Nyholm & H. Rita (1995) D-dimer improves the prognostic value of combined clinical and laboratory data in equine gastrointestinal colic. Acta Vet Scand, 36,255-72.
Scott-Moncrieff, J. C, N. G. Treadwell, S. M. McCullough & M. B. Brooks (2001) Hemostatic abnormalities in dogs with primary immune-mediated hemolytic anemia. J Am Anim Hosp Assoc, 37, 220-7.
Sobiech, P., J. Radwinska, W. Krystkiewicz, A. Snarska & A. Stopyra (2008) Changes in the coagulation profile of cattle with left abomasal displacement. Pol J Vet Sci, 11,301-6.
Stockham, S. & M. Scott. 2002. Hemostasis. In Fundamentals of Veterinary Clinical Pathology, 155-225. Iowa: A Blackwell Publishing Company.
Stokol, T. (2003) Plasma D-dimer for the diagnosis of thromboembolic disorders in dogs. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract, 33,1419-35.
Stokol, T., Μ. Β. Brooks, Η. Ν. Erb & G. E. Mauldin (2000) D-dimer concentrations in healthy dogs and dogs with disseminated intravascular coagulation. Am J Vet Res, 61,393-8.
Stokol, T., Η. Ν. Erb, L. De Wilde, S. J. Tornquist & M. Brooks (2005) Evaluation of latex agglutination kits for detection of fibrin(ogen) degradation products and D-dimer in healthy horses and horses with severe colic. Vet Clin Pathol, 34, 375-82.
Tarnow, I., T. Falk, A. Tidholm, T. Martinussen, A. L. Jensen, L. H. Olsen, H. D. Pedersen & A. T. Kristensen (2007) Hemostatic biomarkers in dogs with chronic congestive heart failure. J Vet
Intern Med, 21, 451-7.
Tick, L. W., M. Nijkeuter, M. H. Kramer, M. M. Hovens, H. R. Buller, F. W. Leebeek & M. V. Huisman (2008) High D-dimer levels increase the likelihood of pulmonary embolism. J Intern Med, 264, 195-200.
Ware, L. B., M. A. Matthay, P. E. Parsons, B. T. Thompson, J. L. Januzzi & M. D. Eisner (2007) Pathogenetic and prognostic significance of altered coagulation and fibrinolysis in acute lung
injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med, 35, 1821-8.
Wells, P. S., D. R. Anderson, M. Rodger, M. Forgie, C. Kearon, J. Dreyer, G. Kovacs, M. Mitchell, B. Lewandowski & M. J. Kovacs (2003) Evaluation of D-dinier in the diagnosis of suspected deepvein thrombosis. Ν Engl J Med, 349,1227-35.
Wiinberg, B., A. L. Jensen, P. I. Johansson, E. Rozanski, M. Tranholm & A. T. Kristensen (2008) Thromboelastographic evaluation of hemostatic function in dogs with disseminated intravascular
coagulation. J Vet Intern Med, 22, 357-65.
Wiinberg, B., A. L. Jensen, M. Kjelgaard-Hansen, R. Rojkjaer, P. I. Johansson, L. P. Gade, D. X. Gram & A. T. Kristensen (2007) Study on biological variation of haemostatic parameters in clinically healthy dogs. Vet J, 174, 62-8.
Most read articles by the same author(s)