Early intervention in ADHD within the framework of the biopsychosocial model

PDF (ελληνικά)
Published: Dec 26, 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.12681/psy_hps.25583
Keywords:
ADHD biopsychosocial model early intervention epigenesis neuroplasticity secondary prevention
Katerina Maniadaki
University of West Attica
Abstract

The aim of this paper is to provide evidence regarding the necessity and the effectiveness of early intervention for ADHD, by reviewing the most important international early intervention programs for ADHD and by presenting a relevant program implemented in Greece, based on the multi-level approach in developmental psychopathology. These programs are underpinned theoretically by the biopsychosocial epigenetic model which claims that ADHD is not just the outcome of structural and functional neurobiological deficits but results from the dynamic interplay among genetic, neurophysiological, neurochemical, and environmental factors, affecting brain structure and function early in the process of development. Early intervention focuses on those processes that take place very early in development and have a causal relationship with ADHD, with the aim of modifying the underlying neurophysiology and producing generalized long-lasting change. The efficacy of early intervention mainly lies in the fact that it takes place during a period when brain plasticity is great. Plasticity is an intrinsic property of the brain that ensures dynamic modifications at multiple levels of neural organization, allowing the brain to process, encode, and implement new knowledge. Although this neuronal development is to a great extent genetically programmed, it is widely acknowledged that environment also plays a major role through the process of epigenesis by moderating gene expression with subsequent alterations in brain structure and function and allowing even modification of certain deficient structures.

Article Details
  • Section
  • SPECIAL SECTION
Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

The journal PSYCHOLOGY adopts a Platinum open-access policy. Submission, processing or publication costs are waived by the Hellenic Psychological Society. Papers published in the journal PSYCHOLOGY are licensed under a 'Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International' licence. The authors reserve the copyright of their work and grant the journal the right of its first publication. Third-party licensees are allowed to use the published paper immediately after publication as they wish, provided they retain the defined by the license copyright formalities, regarding the reference to its author(s) and its initial publication in the journal PSYCHOLOGY. Moreover, any adjusted work should be shared under the same reuse rights, so with the same CC license.

Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Arnett, A.B., MacDonald, B., & Pennington, B.F. (2013). Cognitive and behavioral indicators of ADHD prior to school age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 1284-1294. https:// doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12104.
Auerbach, J.G., Atzaba-Poria, N., Berger, A., & Landau, R. (2004). Emerging developmental pathways to ADHD: possible path markers in early infancy. Journal of Neural Plasticity, 11, 29-44. https://doi.org/10.1155/NP.2004.29.
Auerbach, J.G., Landau, R., Berger, A., Arbelle, S., Faroy, M., & Karplus, M. (2005). Neonatal behavior of infants at familial risk for ADHD. Infant, Behavior and Development, 28, 220-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2004.12.002.
Baumeister, R.F., & Vohs, K.D. (2004). Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications. Guilford Press.
Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children's functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57, 111-127. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.2.111.
Blair, C., & Razza, R.P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78, 647-663. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x.
Bodrova, E., Germeroth, C., & Leong, D.J. (2013). Play and self-regulation. American Journal of Play, 6, 111-123. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1016167.pdf.
Campbell, S.B. (2002). Behavior problems in preschool children: clinical and developmental issues (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
Carlson, S.M. (2005). Developmentally sensitive measures of executive function in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 595-616. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2802_3.
Chacko, A., Kofler, M., & Jarrett, M. (2014). Improving outcomes for youth with ADHD: A conceptual framework for combined neurocognitive and skill-based treatment approaches. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 17, 368-384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-014-0171-5.
Chamberlain, S.R., Hampshire, A., Muller, U., Rubia, K., Del, C.N., Craig, K., Regenthal, R., Suckling, J., Roiser, J.P., Grant, J.E., Bullmore, E.T., Robbins, T.W., & Sahakian, B.J. (2009). Atomoxetine modulates right inferior frontal activation during inhibitory control: a pharmacological functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 550-555. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.014.
Colombo, J., & Cheatham, C.L. (2006). The emergence and basis of endogenous attention in infancy and early childhood. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 34, 283-322. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/S0065-2407(06)80010-8.
Dawson, G. (2008). Early behavioral intervention, brain plasticity, and the prevention of autism spectrum disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 775-803. https://doi.org/10.1017/ S0954579408000370.
Deoni, S.C.L., Mercure, E., Blasi, A., Gasston, D., Thomson, A., Johnson, M., Williams, S.C.R., & Murphy, D.G.M. (2011). Mapping infant brain myelination with magnetic resonance imaging. Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 784-791. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2106-10.2011.
Diamond, A., Barnett, W.S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S. (2007). Preschool program improves cognitive control. Science, 318, 1387-1388. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1151148.
DuPaul, G.J., Power, T.J., Anastopoulos, A.D., & Reid, R. (1998). ADHD Rating Scale-IV. Checklists, norms and clinical implications. The Guilford Press.
Fraga, M.F., Ballestar, E., Paz, M.F., Ropero, S., Setien, F., Ballestar, M.L., Heine-Suñer, D., Cigudosa, J.C., Urioste, M., Benitez, J., Boix-Chornet, M., Sanchez-Aguilera, A., Ling, C., Carlsson, E., Poulsen, P., Vaag, A., Stephan, Z., Spector, T.D., Wu, Y.Z., Plass, C., & Esteller, M. (2005). Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 10604-10609. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0500398102.
Galéra, C., Cote, S.M., Bouvard, M.P., Pingault, J.B., Melchior, M., Michel, G., Boivin, M., & Tremblay, R.E. (2011). Early risk factors for hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention trajectories from age 17 months to 8 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68, 1267-1275. https://doi.org/10.1001/ archgenpsychiatry.2011.138.
Garon, N., Bryson, S.E., & Smith, I.M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 31-60. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31.
Gartstein, M.A., Crawford, J., & Robertson, C.D. (2008). Early markers of language and attention: Mutual contributions and the impact of parent-infant interactions. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 39, 9-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-007-0067-4.
Gillam, R., Loeb, D., & Friel-Patti, S. (2001). Looking back: A summary of five exploratory studies of Fast ForWord. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10, 269-273. https://doi.org/10.1044/ 1058-0360(2001/024).
Goodwin, A., Salomone, S., Bolton, P., Charman, T., Jones, E.J., Pickles, A., ... Johnson, M.H. (2016). Attention training for infants at familial risk of ADHD (INTERSTAARS): study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials, 17, 608. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-016-1727-0.
Gremillion, M.L., & Martel, M.M. (2014). Merely misunderstood?: Receptive, expressive and pragmatic language in young children with disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 43, 765-776. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2013.822306.
Gurevitz, M., Geva, R., Varon, M., & Leitner, Y. (2014). Early markers in infants and toddlers for development of ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18, 14-22. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1087054712447858.
Hagberg, B.S., Miniscalco, C., & Gillberg, C. (2010). Clinic attenders with autism or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Cognitive profile at school age and its relationship to preschool indicators of language delay. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2009.07.012.
Halperin, J.M., Bedard, A-C., & Curchack-Lichtin, J.T. (2012). Preventive interventions for ADHD: A neurodevelopmental perspective. Neurotherapeutics, 9, 531-541. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-012-0123-z.
Halperin, J.M., & Healey, D.M. (2011). The influences of environmental enrichment, cognitive enhancement, and physical exercise on brain development: Can we alter the developmental trajectory of ADHD? Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 36, 621-634. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.07.006.
Halperin, J.M., Marks, D.J., Bedard, A.C., Chacko, A., Curchack, J.T., Yoon, C.A., & Healey, D. (2013). Training executive, attention, and motor skills: A proof-of-concept study in preschool children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 17, 711-721. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054711435681.
Hatcher, P.J., Hulme, C., & Snowling, M.J. (2004). Explicit phonological training combined with reading instruction helps young children at risk of reading failure. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 338-358. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00225.x.
Healey, D., & Halperin, J.M. (2015). Enhancing neurocognitive growth with the aid of games and exercise (ENGAGE): A novel early-intervention fostering the development of preschoolers’ self-control. Child Neuropsychology, 21, 465-480. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2014.906567.
Hoekzema, E., Carmona, S., Ramos-Quiroga, J.A., Barba, E., Bielsa, A., Tremols, V., Rovira, M., Soliva, J.C., Casas, M., Bulbena, A., Tobeña, A., & Vilarroya, O. (2011). Training-induced neuroanatomical plasticity in ADHD: a tensor-based morphometric study. Human Brain Mapping, 32, 1741-1749. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.21143.
Hoekzema, E., Carmona, S., Tremols, V., Gispert, J.D., Guitart, M., Fauquet, J., Rovira, M., Bielsa, A., Soliva, J.C., Tomas, X., Bulbena, A., Ramos-Quiroga, J.A., Casas, M., Tobeña, A., & Vilarroya, O. (2010). Enhanced neural activity in frontal and cerebellar circuits after cognitive training in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Human Brain Mapping, 31, 1942-1950. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/hbm.20988.
Johnson, M.H., Jones, E., & Gliga, T. (2015). Brain adaptation and alternative developmental trajectories. Development & Psychopathology, 27, 425-442. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000073.
Κάκουρος, Ε., & Μανιαδάκη, Κ. (2000). Διαταραχή Ελλειμματικής Προσοχής-Υπερκινητικότητα. Ελληνικά Γράμματα.
Κάκουρος, Ε., & Μανιαδάκη, Κ. (2002). Ψυχοπαθολογία Παιδιών και Εφήβων. Αναπτυξιακή Προσέγγιση. Τυπωθήτω.
Κάκουρος, Ε., & Μανιαδάκη, Κ. (2006). Τραυλισμός. Η φύση και η αντιμετώπισή του στα παιδιά και στους εφήβους. Τυπωθήτω.
Κάκουρος, Ε., & Μανιαδάκη, Κ. (2012). Η φύση της σχέσης ανάμεσα στη ΔΕΠ-Υ, τις μαθησιακές δυσκολίες και τη δυσλεξία. Στο: E. Kάκουρος & Κ. Μανιαδάκη (Επιμ.), Διαταραχή Ελλειμματικής Προσοχής-Υπερκινητικότητα. Θεωρητικές προσεγγίσεις και θεραπευτική αντιμετώπιση (σσ. 161-180). Gutenberg.
Καλαντζή-Αζίζι, Α., Αγγελή, Κ., & Ευσταθίου, Γ. (2005). Ελληνική κλίμακα αξιολόγησης της ΔΕΠ/Υ – IV. Ελληνικά Γράμματα.
Kelly, D.J., Walker, R., & Norbury, C.F. (2013). Deficits in volitional oculomotor control align with language status in autism spectrum disorders. Developmental Science, 16, 56-66. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01188.x.
Kieling, C., Goncalves, R.R., Tannock, R., & Castellanos, F.X. ( 2008). Neurobiology of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 17, 285-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2007.11.012.
Kollins, S.H., & Greenhill, L. (2006). Evidence base for the use of stimulant medication in preschool children with ADHD. Infants & Young Children, 19, 132-141. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001163-200604000-00006.
Lehn, H., Derks, E.M., Hudziak, J.J., Heutink, P., van Beijsterveldt, T.C., & Boomsma, D.I. (2007). Attention problems and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in discordant and concordant monozygotic twins: Evidence of environmental moderators. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 83-91. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000242244.00174.d9.
Lewis, B.A., Short, E.J., Iyengar, S.K., Taylor, H.G., Freebairn, M.L., Tag, M.J., Avrich, A.A., & Stein, C.M. (2012). Speech-sound disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms. Topics in Language Disorders, 32, 247-263. https://doi.org/10.1097/TLD.0b013e318261f086.
Li, J.J., & Lee, S.S. (2012). Interaction of dopamine transporter (DAT1) genotype and maltreatment for ADHD: A latent class analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 997-1005. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02563.x.
Μανιαδάκη, Κ. (2012). Τα βασικά χαρακτηριστικά της ΔΕΠ-Υ στην πορεία της ανάπτυξης. Στο: E. Kάκουρος & Κ. Μανιαδάκη (Επιμ.), Διαταραχή Ελλειμματικής Προσοχής-Υπερκινητικότητα. Θεωρητικές προσεγγίσεις και θεραπευτική αντιμετώπιση (σσ. 19-56). Gutenberg.
Μανιαδάκη, Κ. (2015, Μάιος, 231). Δυνατότητες δευτερογενούς πρόληψης και πρώιμης αντιμετώπισης της ΔΕΠ-Υ. [Ανακοίνωση σε συνέδριο]. 15ο Πανελλήνιο Συνέδριο Ψυχολογικής Έρευνας, Λευκωσία, Κύπρος.
Μανιαδάκη, Κ. (2016, Απρίλιος). Η συμβολή της πρώιμης παρέμβασης στην αντιμετώπιση της ΔΕΠ-Υ. [Ανακοίνωση σε συνέδριο]. 3ο Πανελλήνιο Συνέδριο Γνωσιακών Συμπεριφοριστικών Προσεγγίσεων σε Παιδιά και Εφήβους, Αθήνα, Ελλάδα.
Μανιαδάκη, Κ., & Κάκουρος, Ε. (2012). Διαταραχές συμπεριφοράς των ατόμων με ΔΕΠ-Υ. Στο: E. Kάκουρος & Κ. Μανιαδάκη (Επιμ.), Διαταραχή Ελλειμματικής Προσοχής-Υπερκινητικότητα. Θεωρητικές προσεγγίσεις και θεραπευτική αντιμετώπιση (σσ. 181-198). Gutenberg.
Μανιαδάκη, Κ., & Κάκουρος, Ε. (2016). Η διαχείριση της ΔΕΠ-Υ. Gutenberg.
Μανιαδάκη, Κ., & Κάκουρος, Ε. (2017, Μάιος). Πρώιμη παρέμβαση σε κορίτσι 2 ετών με στοιχεία ΔΕΠ-Υ και διαχρονική παρακολούθηση για 10 χρόνια. [Ανακοίνωση σε συνέδριο]. 6ο Πανελλήνιο Συνέδριο Ψυχολογικής Έρευνας, Θεσσαλονίκη, Ελλάδα.
Maniadaki, K., & Kakouros, E. (2018). The complete guide to ADHD. Nature, diagnosis and treatment. Routledge.
Maniadaki, K., Sonuga-Barke, E., Kakouros, E., & Karaba, R. (2005). Maternal emotions and self-efficacy beliefs in relation to boys and girls with AD/HD. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 35, 245-263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-004-6460-3.
Maniadaki, K., Sonuga-Barke, E., Kakouros, E., & Karaba, R. (2006). Parental beliefs about the nature of AD/HD behaviours and their relationship to referral intentions in preschool children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 33, 188-195. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2006.00642.x.
Marchand, V.A., & Ferland, A. (2008). Speed of word recognition and vocabulary knowledge in infancy predict cognitive and language outcomes in later childhood. Developmental Science, 11, 9-16. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00671.x.
Mathews, H.L., & Janusek, L.W. (2011). Epigenetics and psychoneuroimmunology: Mechanisms and models. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 25, 25-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2010.08.009.
McClelland, M.M., Cameron, C.E., Connor, C.M., Farris, C.L., Jewkes, A.M., & Morrison, F. J. (2007). Links between behavioural regulation and preschoolers' literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. Developmental Psychology, 43, 947-959. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.947.
McClelland, M.M., Morrison, F.J., & Holmes, D.L. (2000). Children at risk for early academic problems: the role of learning-related social skills. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 15, 307-329. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-2006(00)00069-7.
McClure, S.M., Ericson, K.M., Laibson, D.I., Loewenstein, G., Cohen, J.D. (2007). Time discounting for primary rewards. The Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 5796-5804. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI .4246-06.2007.
Meaney, M.J. (2010). Epigenetics and the biological definition of gene×environment interactions. Child Development, 81, 41-79. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01381.x.
Mill, J., & Petronis, A. (2008). Pre- and peri- natal environmental risks for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): the potential role of epigenetic processes in mediating susceptibility. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 1020-1030. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01909.x.
Morrell, J., & Murray, L. (2003). Parenting and the development of conduct disorder and hyperactive symptoms in childhood: a prospective longitudinal study from 2 months to 8 years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 489-508. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.t01-1-00139.
Nigg, J.T. (2013b). Attention deficits and hyperactivity–impulsivity: What have we learned, what next? Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1489-1503. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000 734.
Nigg, J.T, Nikolas, M., & Burt, S.A. (2010). Measured gene-by-environment interaction in relation to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 863-873. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2010.01.025.
Ninowski, J.E. (2010). Early temperament and emotion regulation in infants at familial risk for ADHD: the role of maternal parenting. [Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation]. University of Calgary.
Oerbeck, B., Overgaard, K. R., Pripp, A. H., Reichborn-Kjennerud, T., Aase, H., & Zeiner, P. (2017). Early Predictors of ADHD: Evidence from a Prospective Birth Cohort. Journal of Attention Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054717696765.
Oliveira, K.L.D.C., & Costa, R.C.C. (2012). Phonemic discrimination and its relation to phonological disorder. Revista CEFAC, 14, 1209-1214. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-18462012005000044.
Palili, Α., Kolaitis, G., Vassi, I., Veltsista, A., Bakoula, C., & Gika, A. (2011). Inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity - epidemiology and correlations: A nationwide Greek study from birth to 18 years. Journal of Child Neurology, 26, 199-204. https://doi.org/10.1177/0883073810379640.
Παπαηλιού, Χ., Μανιαδάκη, Κ., & Κάκουρου, Ν. (2015, Μάιος, 306-307). Η συμβολή της πρώιμης αναγνώρισης των δυσκολιών φωνημικής διάκρισης και φωνολογικής επίγνωσης στην αντιμετώπιση της ΔΕΠ-Υ. [Ανακοίνωση σε συνέδριο]. 15ο Πανελλήνιο Συνέδριο Ψυχολογικής Έρευνας, Λευκωσία, Κύπρος.
Papaeliou, C.F., Maniadaki, K. & Kakouros, E. (2015). Association between story recall and other language abilities in schoolchildren with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19, 53-62. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1087054712446812.
Παπαβασιλείου, Α. (2012). Νευρολογικά ευρήματα και φαρμακευτική αγωγή για τη ΔΕΠ-Υ. Στο: Ε. Κάκουρος και Κ. Μανιαδάκη (Επιμ.) Διαταραχή Ελλειμματικής Προσοχής-Υπερκινητικότητα. Θεωρητικές προσεγγίσεις και θεραπευτική αντιμετώπιση (σσ. 223-241). Gutenberg.
Pauli-Pott, U., & Becker, K. (2011). Neuropsychological basic deficits in preschoolers at risk for ADHD: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 626-637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.02.005.
Polanczyk, G., De Lima, M.S., Horta, L., Biederman, J., & Rohde L.A. (2007). The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: A systematic review and metaregression analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 942-948. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2007.164.6.942.
Rose, S.A., Feldman, J.F., & Jankowski, J.J. (2009). A cognitive approach to the development of early language. Child Development, 80, 134-150. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01250.x.
Rubia, K., Halari, R., Cubillo, A., Smith, A.B., Mohammad, A.M., Brammer, M., & Taylor, E. (2011). Methylphenidate normalizes fronto-striatal underactivation during interference inhibition in medication-naïve boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36, 1575-1586. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2011.30.
Rueda, M.R., Rothbart, M.K., McCandliss, B.D., Saccomanno, L., & Posner, M.I. (2005). Training, maturation, and genetic influences on the development of executive attention. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102, 14931-14936. https://doi.org/ 10.1073/pnas.0506897102.
Rutter, M. (2006). Gene–environment interplay and psychopathology: multiple varieties but real effects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 226-261. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470696781.
Rutter, M. (Ed.) (2008). Genetic effects on environmental vulnerability to disease. Wiley.
Sagvolden, Τ., Johansen, E.B., Aase, H., & Russell, V.A. (2005). A dynamic developmental theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) predominantly hyperactive/impulsive and combined subtypes. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 397-468. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X05000075.
Sarver, D.E., Rapport, M.D., Kofler, M.J., Scanlan, S.W., Raiker, J.S., Altro, T.A., & Bolden, J. (2012). Attention problems, phonological short-term memory, and visuospatial short-term memory: Differential effects on near- and long-term scholastic achievement. Learning and Individual Differences, 22, 8-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.09.010.
Schweitzer, J.B., & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1988). Self-control: Teaching tolerance for delay in impulsive children. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 50, 173-186. https://doi.org/10.1901/ jeab.1988.50-173.
Singh, I. (2008). Beyond polemics: Science and ethics of ADHD. Nature Reviews, 9, 957-964. https:// doi.org/10.1038/nrn2514.
Skounti, M., Philalithis, A., Mpitzaraki, K., Vamvoukas, M., & Galanakis, E. (2006). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in schoolchildren in Crete. Acta Paediatrica, 95, 658-663. https://doi.org/10.1080/08035250600554243.
Somerville, L.H., & Casey, B.J. (2010). Developmental neurobiology of cognitive control and motivational systems. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 20, 236-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2010.01.006.
Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S. (2003). The dual pathway model of AD/HD: an elaboration of neuro-developmental characteristics. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 593-604. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.neubiorev.2003.08.005.
Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S. (2005). Causal models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: from common simple deficits to multiple developmental pathways. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1231-1238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.09.008.
Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S. (2011). Editorial: ADHD as a reinforcement disorder-moving from general effects to identifying (six) specific models to test. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 917-918. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02444.x.
Sonuga-Barke, E.J., Barton, J., Daley, D., Hutchings, J., Maishman, T., Raftery, J., Stanton, L., Laver-Bradbury, C., Chorozoglou, M., Coghill, D., Little, L., Ruddock, M., Radford, M., Yao, G.L., Lee, L., Gould, L., Shipway, L., Markomichali, P., McGuirk, J., Lowe, M., Perez, E., Lockwood, J., & Thompson, J.J. (2018). A comparison of the clinical effectiveness and cost of specialised individually delivered parent training for preschool attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and a generic, group-based programme: a multi-centre, randomised controlled trial of the New Forest Parenting Programme versus Incredible Years. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 797-809. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-017-1054-3.
Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S., & Halperin, J. (2010). Developmental phenotypes and causal pathways in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: potential targets for early intervention? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 368-389. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02195.x.
Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S., Kumsta, R., Schlotz, W., Lasky-Su, J., Marco, R., Miranda, A., & Faraone, S.V. (2011). A functional variant of the serotonin transporter gene (SLC6A4) moderates impulsive choice in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder boys and siblings. Biological Psychiatry, 70, 230-236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.01.040.
Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S., Thompson, M., Abikoff, H., Klein, R., & Brotman, L.M. (2006). Nonpharmacological interventions for preschoolers with ADHD: The case for Specialized Parent Training. Infants & Young Children, 19, 142-153. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001163-200604000-00007.
Spencer, T.J. (2006). ADHD and comorbidity in childhood. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67, 27-31. https://europepmc.org/article/med/16961427
Stevens, C., Fanning, J., Coch, D., Sanders, L., & Neville, H. (2008). Neural mechanisms of selective auditory attention are enhanced by computerized training: Electrophysiological evidence from language-impaired and typically developing children. Brain Research, 1205, 55-69. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.10.108.
Stevens, S.E., Kumsta, R., Kreppner, J.M., Brookes, K., Rutter, M., & Sonuga-Barke, E. (2009). Dopamine transporter gene polymorphism moderates the effects of severe deprivation on ADHD symptoms: Developmental continuities in gene-environment interplay. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B, 150B, 753-761. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.31010.
Sullivan, E.L., Holton, K.F., Nousen, E.K., Barling, A.N., Sullivan, C.A., Propper, C. B., & Nigg, J.T. (2015). Early identification of ADHD risk via infant temperament and emotion regulation: a pilot study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56, 949-957. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12426.
Tamm, L., Epstein, J.N., Loren, R.E., Becker, S.P., Brenner, S.B., Bamberger, M.E., Peugh, J., & Halperin, J.M. (2017). Generating attention, inhibition, and memory: A pilot randomized trial for preschoolers with executive functioning deficits. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 7, 183-190. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1266645.
Tamm, L., Nakonezny, P.A., & Hughes, C.W. (2014). An open trial of a metacognitive executive function training for young children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18, 551-559. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1087054712445782.
Thompson, M., Laver-Bradbury, C., Ayres, M., Le Poidevin, E., Mead, S., Dodds, C., Psychogiou, L., Bitsakou, P., Daley, D., Weeks, A., Brotman, L.M., Abikoff, H., Thompson, P., & Sonuga-Barke, E.J.S. (2009). A small-scale randomized controlled trial of the revised new forest parenting programme for preschoolers with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 18, 605-616. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-009-0020-0.
Toplak, M.E., Connors, L., Shuster, J., Knezevic, B., & Parks, S. (2008). Review of cognitive, cognitive behavioral, and neural-based interventions for attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 801-823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2007.10.008.
Torgesen, J.K. (2000). Individual differences in response to early interventions in reading: The lingering problem of treatment resisters. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 15, 55-64. https:/ /doi.org/10.1207/SLDRP1501_6.
Tully, L.A., Arsenault, L., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T.E., & Morgan, J. (2004). Does maternal warmth moderate the effects of birthweight on twins’ attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms and low IQ? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 219-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.2.218.
Valera, E.M., Faraone, S.V., Murray, K.E., & Seidman, L.J. (2007). Meta-analysis of structural imaging findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 1361-1369. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.06.011.
Van Mil, N.H., Steegers-Theunissen, R.P., Bouwland-Both, M.I., Verbiest, M.M., Rijlaarsdam, J., Hofman, A., Steegers, E.A.P., Heijmans, B.T., Jaddoe, V.W.V., Verhulst, F., Stolk, L., Eilers, P.H.C., Uitterlinden, A.G., & Tiemeier, H. (2014). DNA methylation profiles at birth and child ADHD symptoms. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 49, 51-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.10.017.
Von Suchodoletz, A., Trommsdorff, G., Heikamp, T., Wieber, F., & Gollwitzer, P.M. (2009). Transition to school: The role of kindergarten children's behavior regulation. Learning and Individual Differences, 19, 561-566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2009.07.006.
Wigal, T.I.M., Greenhill, L., Chuang, S., McGough, J., Vitiello, B., Skrobala, A., Swanson, J., Wigal, S., Abikoff, H., Scott, K., McCracken, J., Riddle, M., Posner, K., Ghuman, J., Davies, M., Thorp, B., & Stehli, A. (2006). Safety and tolerability of methylphenidate in preschool children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 1294-1303. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000235082.63156.27.
Young, S., & Amarasinghe, J.M. (2010). Practitioner review: Non-pharmacological treatments for ADHD: a lifespan approach. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 116-133. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02191.x.