Investigating the predictors of academic language competences in primary school children: A machine learning approach


Δημοσιευμένα: Mar 1, 2026
Λέξεις-κλειδιά:
Academic language primary education mathematics education machine learning language development
Astrid Rank
Elisabeth Kraus
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8007-0321
Περίληψη

Academic language plays a critical role in students’ ability to succeed in school. Since multilingual and socioeconomically disadvantaged students often face challenges in acquiring the necessary language register, academic language proficiency is widely recognized as a key factor in promoting educational equity. To investigate how academic language skills develop – and what factors influence this process over time, the Eva-Prim study (Rank et al., 2021) analysed longitudinal data from 570 German primary school students. Academic language comprehension and production in mathematical contexts were assessed. Drawing on over 1,000 student-, family-, and school-related variables, a machine learning approach (Random Forests) (Breiman, 2001) was employed to identify the most relevant predictors. The findings show that at the beginning of primary school, distal factors such as intelligence, parental education, and socioeconomic status were associated with academic language comprehension. Over time, however, the influence of these background characteristics declined, while trainable skills – particularly vocabulary, reading fluency, and mathematical competence, became increasingly important. Academic language production in grade four was predicted mainly by these proximal, trainable skills. Demographic factors – including migration background, played only a minor role in predicting academic language performance. These results suggest that academic language development is shaped less by static background variables and more by dynamic, educationally influenceable skills. Thus, supporting vocabulary and reading fluency within subject teaching may be key to fostering academic success for all students, regardless of their background.

Λεπτομέρειες άρθρου
  • Ενότητα
  • Άρθρα
Λήψεις
Τα δεδομένα λήψης δεν είναι ακόμη διαθέσιμα.
Αναφορές
Bailey, A. L. (Eds.). (2007). The language demands of school: Putting academic English to the test. Yale University Press.
Balk, D. (2024). Mathematische Modellierungskompetenz von Grundschulkindern sprachbewusst fördern. [Promoting mathematical modelling competence of primary school children through language awareness]. Julius Klinkhardt Verlag.
Bodner, T. E. (2008). What improves with increased missing data imputations?. Structural equation modeling: a multidisciplinary journal, 15(4), 651-675. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510802339072
Brandt, H., Menzel, K. N., Neumann, A., & Weinhold, S. (2024). Gut vorbereitet auf den Umgang mit sprachlicher Diversität im Unterricht? [Well prepared for dealing with linguistic diversity in the classroom?] DDS – Die Deutsche Schule, 2024(2), 163–184. https://doi.org/10.31244/dds.2024.02.05
Breiman, L. (2001). Random forests. Machine Learning, 45, 5–32. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010933404324
Bulheller, S., & Häcker, H. O. (2003). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT)-Deutschsprachige Fassung des PPVT-III für Jugendliche und Erwachsene von LM Dunn & LM Dunn. Swets Test Services.
Chamot, A. U. (2009). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language learning approach (Second edition). Pearson Longman.
Corvacho del Toro, I. M. (2013). Fachwissen von Grundschullehrkräften: Effekt auf die Rechtschreibleistung von Grundschülern [Subject knowledge of primary school teachers: Effect on students’ spelling performance]. University of Bamberg Press.
Cummins, J. (2008). BICS and CALP: Empirical and theoretical status of the distinction. In N. H. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education (pp. 487–499). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-30424-3_36
Cummins, J. (2017). Teaching for transfer in multilingual school contexts. In O. García, A. M. Y. Lin, & S. May (Eds.), Bilingual and multilingual education (pp. 103–115). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02258-1_8
Henschel, S., Heppt, B., Rjosk, C., & Weirich, S. (2022). Zuwanderungsbezogene Disparitäten [Migration-related disparities]. In P. Stanat, S. Schipolowski, R. Schneider, K. A. Sachse, S. Weirich, & S. Henschel (Eds.), IQB-Bildungstrend 2021 Kompetenzen in den Fächern Deutsch und Mathematik am Ende der 4. Jahrgangsstufe im dritten Ländervergleich (pp. 181-219). Waxmann.
Heppt, B., Haag, N., Böhme, K., & Stanat, P. (2015). The role of academic‐language features for reading comprehension of language‐minority students and students from low‐ SES families. Reading Research Quarterly, 50(1), 61–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.83
Heppt, B., Henschel, S., & Haag, N. (2016). Everyday and academic language comprehension: Investigating their relationships with school success and challenges for language minority learners. Learning and Individual Differences, 47, 244–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.01.004
Heppt, B., Köhne-Fuetterer, J., Eglinsky, J., Volodina, A., Stanat, P., & Weinert, S. (2024). BiSpra 2–4: Test zur Erfassung bildungssprachlicher Kompetenzen bei Grundschulkindern der Jahrgangsstufen 2 bis 4 [BiSpra 2–4: Test for assessing academic language competences in primary school children in grades 2 to 4](2. überarbeitete und aktualisierte Auflage). Waxmann.
Heppt, B., & Stanat, P. (2020). Development of academic language comprehension of German monolinguals and dual language learners. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 62, 101868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101868
Heppt, B., & Volodina, A. (2024). Diagnostik bildungssprachlicher Kompetenzen mit BiSpra 2–4: Grundlagen der Testentwicklung und empirische Befunde zu einsprachigen und mehrsprachigen Lernenden [Diagnosis of academic language competences with BiSpra 2–4: Foundations of test development and empirical findings on monolingual and multilingual learners]. In J. Goschler, P. Rosenberg, & T. Woerfel (Eds.), Empirische Zugänge zu Bildungssprache und bildungssprachlichen Kompetenzen (pp. 239–271). Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-43737-4_10
Hilbert, S., Coors, S., Kraus, E., Bischl, B., Lindl, A., Frei, M., Wild, J., Krauss, S., Goretzko, D., & Stachl, C. (2021). Machine learning for the educational sciences. Review of Education, 9(3), e3310. https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.3310
Hilbert, S., Kraus, E., & Lindl, A. (2025). Machine Learning: Eine Einführung für Psychologie, Geistes-und Sozialwissenschaften. [Machine learning: An introduction for psychology, the humanities, and social sciences]. Springer Wissensmedien Wiesbaden GmbH.
Krajewski, K., Liehm, S., & Schneider, W. (2004). Deutscher mathematiktest für zweite klassen: DEMAT 2. [German mathematics test for second grade: DEMAT 2]. Beltz Test.
Lavelle-Hill, R., Frenzel, A. C., Goetz, T., Lichtenfeld, S., Marsh, H. W., Pekrun, R., Sakaki, M., Smith, G., & Murayama, K.. (2024). How the predictors of math achievement change over time: A longitudinal machine learning approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 116(8), 1383–1403. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000863
Lange, I., & Gogolin, I. (2010). Durchgängige sprachbildung: Eine handreichung. [Continuous language education: A handbook]. Waxmann.
Lange, S. D., & Pohlmann-Rother, S. (2020). Überzeugungen von Grundschullehrkräften zum Umgang mit nicht-deutschen Erstsprachen im Unterricht. [Primary school teachers’ beliefs about dealing with non-German first languages in the classroom]. Zeitschrift für Bildungsforschung, 10(1), 43–60. https://doi.org/10.1007/s35834-020-00265-4
Lenhard, A., Lenhard, W., Segerer, R., & Suggate, S. (2015). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test -Revision 4 (PPVT-4), German Version. Pearson Assessment.
Liaw, A., & Wiener, M., (2002). Classification and regression by randomForest. R News, 2(3), 18–22.
McElvany, N., Lorenz, R., Frey, A., Goldhammer, F., Schilcher, A., & Stubbe, T. C. (2023). IGLU 2021 Lesekompetenz von Grundschulkindern im internationalen Vergleich und im Trend über 20 Jahre [PIRLS 2021: Reading competence of primary school children in international comparison and in the trend over 20 years]. Waxmann.
Merkert, A. (2022). Sprachdiagnostik im Mathematikunterricht der Grundschule: Konzeption eines Testinstruments. [Language diagnostics in primary mathematics education: Conceptualization of a test instrument]. Waxmann.
Merkert, A., & Lenske, G. (2023). Validierung eines diagnostischen Instruments zur Erfassung der sprachlichen Ausdrucksfähigkeit in Mathematik für die dritte und vierte Klassenstufe. [Validation of a diagnostic instrument for assessing language production skills in mathematics for third and fourth grade students]. Diagnostica, 69(4), 194–206.
Molnar, C. (2020). Interpretable machine learning. https://christophm.github.io/interpretable-ml-book/
Morales-Reyes, A., Pérez-Vargas, J. C., Siberón, J., & Wolfgang, R. (2024). English skills of Puerto Rican students: The effect of gender, SES and school socioeconomic composition. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2024(286), 23–51. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijsl-2023-0022
Morek, M., & Heller, V. (2012). Bildungssprache—Kommunikative, epistemische, soziale und interaktive Aspekte ihres Gebrauchs [Academic language—Communicative, epistemic, social, and interactive aspects of its use]. Zeitschrift Für Angewandte Linguistik, 2012(57), 67–101. https://doi.org/10.1515/zfal-2012-0011
Peng, P., Lin, X., Ünal, Z. E., Lee, K., Namkung, J., Chow, J., & Sales, A. (2020). Examining the mutual relations between language and mathematics: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 146(7), 595–634. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000231
Prediger, S., Wilhelm, N., Büchter, A., Gürsoy, E., & Benholz, C. (2015). Sprachkompetenz und Mathematikleistung – Empirische Untersuchung sprachlich bedingter Hürden in den Zentralen Prüfungen 10 [Language proficiency and mathematics performance – Empirical investigation of language-related barriers in the central examinations at grade 10]. Journal für Mathematik-Didaktik, 36(1), 77–104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13138-015-0074-0
Probst, P., Boulesteix, A. L., & Bischl, B. (2019). Tunability: Importance of hyperparameters of machine learning algorithms. The Journal of Machine Learning Research, 20(1), 1934–1965.
Purpura, D. J., & Ganley, C. M. (2014). Working memory and language: skill-specific or domain-general relations to mathematics? Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 122, 104–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.12.009
R Core Team. (2024). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.R-project.org
Rakesh, D., Lee, P. A., Gaikwad, A., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2024). Associations of socioeconomic status with cognitive function, language ability, and academic achievement in youth: A systematic review of mechanisms and protective factors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 66, 417-439. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.14082
Rank, A., Deml, I., Lenske, G., Merkert, A., Binder, K., Schulte, M., Schilcher, A., Wildemann, A., Bien-Miller, L., & Krauss, S. (2021). Eva-Prim: Evaluation von Sprachförderkompetenz und (bildungs)sprachlichen Leistungen von Schülerinnen und Schülern in Mathematik. [Eva-Prim: Evaluation of language support competence and (academic) language performance of students in mathematics]. In S. Gentrup, S. Henschel, K. Schotte, L. Beck & P. Stanat (Eds.), Sprach- und Schriftsprachförderung wirksam gestalten (pp. 105–124). W. Kohlhammer.
Rank, A., Schilcher, A., & Schulte, M. (2020). Sprache und mathematikunterricht. Wie hängt das zusammen? [Language and mathematics instruction: How are they connected?] Die Grundschulzeitschrift, 323, 29–31.
Rank, A., Wildemann, A., Hartinger, A., & Tietze, S. (2019). Early steps into science and literacy – EASI Science-L. Wirkungen sprachlicher Anregungsqualität in naturwissenschaftlichen Bildungsangeboten auf die sprachlichen Fähigkeiten von Vorschulkindern. [Early Steps into Science and Literacy – EASI Science-L: Effects of linguistic stimulation quality in science education programs on the language skills of preschool children] In Stiftung Haus der kleinen Forscher (Eds.), Wirkungen naturwissenschaftlicher Bildungsangebote auf pädagogische Fachkräfte und Kinder (pp. 140–193). Verlag Barbara Budrich. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvmx3jn8
Reilly, D., Neumann, D. L., & Andrews, G. (2019). Gender differences in reading and writing achievement: Evidence from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). American Psychologist, 74(4), 445–458. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000356
Schleppegrell, M. (2004). The language of schooling: A functional linguistics perspective. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Schleppegrell, M. J. (2012). Academic language in teaching and learning: An introduction to the special issue. The Elementary School Journal, 112(3), 409–418. DOI:10.1086/663297
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22.
Snow, C. E. (2010). Academic language and the challenge of reading for learning about science. Science, 328(5977), 450–452. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1182597
Snow, C. E., & Uccelli, P. (2009). The challenge of academic language. In D. R. Olson & N. Torrance (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Literacy (pp. 112–133). Cambridge University Press.
Statista Research Departement (2024). Armutsgefährdungsquote von Kindern in Deutschland nach Migrationshintergrund von 2009 bis 2017 [Child poverty risk rate in Germany by migration background from 2009 to 2017]. https://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/786132/umfrage/armutsgefaehrdungsquote-von-kindern-nach-migrationsstatus-in-deutschland/
Steinhoff, T. (2019). Konzeptualisierung bildungssprachlicher Kompetenzen. Anregungen aus der pragmatischen und funktionalen Linguistik und Sprachdidaktik: Rethinking Academic Language. [How Pragmatics, Functional Linguistics und Language Pedagogy can Contribute to the Discourse]. Zeitschrift Für Angewandte Linguistik, 2019(71), 327–352. https://doi.org/10.1515/zfal-2019-2019
Stekhoven, D. J., & Bühlmann, P. (2012). MissForest—non-parametric missing value imputation for mixed-type data. Bioinformatics, 28(1), 112 –118.
Stekhoven, D. J., & Stekhoven, M. D. J. (2013). Package ‘missForest’. R package version, 1, 21.
Ufer, S., Reiss, Kristina, & Mehringer, V. (2013). Sprachstand, soziale Herkunft und Bilingualität: Effekte auf Facetten mathematischer Kompetenz [Language proficiency, social background, and bilingualism: Effects on facets of mathematical competence ]. In M. Becker-Mrotzek, K. Schramm, E. Thürmann, & H. J. Vollmer (Eds.), Sprache im Fach: Sprachlichkeit und fachliches Lernen (pp. 185–201). Waxmann.
Viesel-Nordmeyer, N., Ritterfeld, U., & Bos, W. (2020a). Die rolle von sprache und arbeitsgedächtnis für die entwicklung mathematischen lernens vom vorschul- bis ins grundschulalter [The role of language and working memory in the development of mathematical learning from preschool to primary school age]. Lernen und Lernstörungen, 9(2), 97–110. https://doi.org/10.1024/2235-0977/a000291
Viesel-Nordmeyer, N., Ritterfeld, U., & Bos, W. (2020b). Welche Entwicklungszusammenhänge zwischen Sprache, Mathematik und Arbeitsgedächtnis modulieren den Einfluss sprachlicher Kompetenzen auf mathematisches Lernen im (Vor‑)Schulalter? [Which developmental interrelations between language, mathematics, and working memory modulate the influence of language skills on mathematical learning in (pre)school age?] Journal für Mathematik-Didaktik, 41(1), 125–155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13138-020-00165-0
Volodina, A., Weinert, S., & Mursin, K. (2020). Development of academic vocabulary across primary school age: Differential growth and influential factors for German monolinguals and language minority learners. Developmental Psychology, 56(5), 922–936. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000910
Wei, P., Lu, Z., & Song, J. (2015). Variable importance analysis: A comprehensive review. Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 142, 399–432. 10.1016/j.ress.2015.05.018
Weiß, R. H., & Osterland, J. (2013). CFT 1-R Grundintelligenztest Skala 1 – Revision [CFT 1-R: Basic intelligence test, scale 1 – Revised version]. Hogrefe.
Wimmer, H., & Mayringer, H. (2014). SLS 2-9: Salzburger Lese-Screening für die Schulstufen 2-9 [SLS 2-9: Salzburg reading screening for grades 2 to 9.]. Hans Huber.