Κυβερνο-εκφοβισμός και κυβερνο-θυματοποίηση σε παιδιά και εφήβους: Συχνότητα εμφάνισης και παράγοντες επικινδυνότητας
Abstract
Cyber-bullying (CB) is a form of aggressive behavior, performed with the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). The purpose of this study is to examine how the individual characteristics of pre-adolescent and adolescent students affect their participation in CB and Cyber-victimization (CV) incidences. Furthermore, the study aimed at studying the phenomenon in three different age-groups in order to investigate whether participation in CB/V incidences is related to the same individual characteristics in all three age-groups, and consequently if it can be subjected to the same prevention and intervention strategies. Overall, 429 students took part in the study, representing three age groups. Thus, 126 students were upper elementary pupils (10-11 years old), 146 lower secondary (12-15 years old) and 157 were upper secondary pupils (16-18 years old). In terms of gender, 220 were boys and 203 girls. Students completed a self-report questionnaire, measuring CB/V experiences, as well as a number of scales measuring internet disinhibition, sensation seeking, psychopathic traits, cognitive and affective empathy, social skills (i.e. cooperation, assertiveness, self-control and responsibility), self-esteem and peer relations. Several items were also included for the assessment of internet use (i.e. frequency, online activities and skills, dangerous use). Results indicated that boys and lower high school students participated more frequently in CB and CV incidences, especially with the dual participant role of the bully-victim. All participants reported more frequent and more dangerous internet use, than non- participants while they scored higher on the internet disinhibition scale. Bully-victims, had significantly higher scores in internet disinhibition, and in psychopathic traits, while they had significantly lower scores in emotional empathy and social skills. CB and CV had a significant positive correlation with internet use, internet disinhibition, psychopathic traits and also a significant negative correlation with emotional empathy. Moreover, CB had a significant negative correlation with cognitive empathy. Regression analyses were performed in order to investigate the best predictors for CB and CV participation respectively. Results indicated that CV was predicted by internet disinhibition in the case of elementary school students, by cognitive empathy in the case of lower high school students and by internet disinhibition and grandiose-manipulative traits in the case of upper high school students, after controlling for CB. Regarding CB, it was predicted by grandiose-manipulative traits in elementary students, internet disihibition, cognitive empathy and grandiose-manipulative traits in lower high school and dangerous ICT use, internet disinhibition and internet use for peer participation online activities in upper high school students, after controlling for CV. Findings are discussed in terms of prevention and intervention strategies regarding CB/V; specifically, the role of internet disinhibition, safe internet use and personal characteristics of the participants (i.e. personality, empathy and social skills) in the manifestation of CB/V incidences are discussed, as well as practices for their prevention for all those involved.
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Kokkinos, C. M., & Antoniadou, N. (2013). Κυβερνο-εκφοβισμός και κυβερνο-θυματοποίηση σε παιδιά και εφήβους: Συχνότητα εμφάνισης και παράγοντες επικινδυνότητας. Preschool and Primary Education, 1, 138–169. https://doi.org/10.12681/ppej.42
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References
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Antoniadou, N., & Kokkinos, C. M. (2013). A review of cyber-bullying research in Greece. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth. Advance online publication. DOI:10.1080/02673843.2013.778207.
Αντωνιάδου, N., & Κόκκινος, K. M. (2011). Ερωτηματολόγιο Εμπειριών Κυβερνο-εκφοβισμού & Θυματοποίησης (ΕΡΕΚΕΚΘΥ). Αδημοσίευτο Ερωτηματολόγιο.
Baldasare, A., Bauman, S., Goldman, L., & Robie, A. (2012). Cyberbullying? Voices ofcollege students. In L. A. Wankel, & C. Wankel, (Eds.), Misbehavior online in higher education (Cutting-edge Technologies in Higher Education, Volume 5) (pp. 127- 155). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Bargh, J. (2002). Beyond simple truth: The human-interest interaction. The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, 58, 1-8.
Buffardi, L. E., & Campbell, W. K. (2008). Narcissism and social networking web sites. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1303–1314.
Calvete, E., Orue, I., Estévez, A., Villardón, L., & Padilla, P. (2010). Cyberbullying in adolescents: Modalities and aggressors’ profile. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1128–1135.
Campbell, M. A. (2007). Cyber bullying and young people: Treatment principles not simplistic advice. QUT Digital Repository. Retrieved June 2010 from http://eprints.qut.edu.au/14903/1/14903.pdf.
Campfield, D. C. (2006). Cyber bullying and victimization: Psychosocial characteristics of bullies, victims and bully/victims. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Montana). Retrieved July 2012 from http://etd.lib.umt.edu/ theses/available/etd-12112008-120806/unrestricted/umi-umt-1107.pdf.
Carney, J. V. (2000). Bullied to death: Perceptions of peer abuse and suicidal behaviour during adolescence. School Psychology International, 21, 213- 223.
Cochrane, K. R. (2008). Exploring Cyberbullying in Saskatchewan. (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Saskatchewan, Faculty of Graduate studies and research.
Cooper, G. (2005). Cyberspace bullying. Psychotherapy Networker 29. Retrieved August 2012 from www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4016/is_200505/ai_n13636439.
Elinoff, J. M., Chafouleas, M. S., & Sassu, A. K. (2004). Bullying: Considerations for defining and intervening in school settings. Psychology in the Schools, 41, 887–896.
Ελληνική Στατιστική Αρχή (2008). Έρευνα χρήσης τεχνολογιών πληροφόρησης και επικοινωνίας από τα νοικοκυριά. Ανακτήθηκε τον Σεπτέμβριο του 2009 από http://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A1901/PressReleases/A1 901_SFA20_DT_AN_00_2008_01_F_GR.pdf
Fanti, K. A., Demetriou, A. G., & Hawa, V. V. (2012). A longitudinal study of cyberbullying: Examining risk and protective factors. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 168-181.
Fanti, K. A., Frick, P. J., & Georgiou, S. (2009). Linking callous-unemotional traits to instrumental and non-instrumental forms of aggression. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31, 285–298.
Fegenbush, B. S., & Olivier D. F. (2009). Cyberbullying: A literature Review. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Louisiana Education Research Association.
Fox, C. L., & Boulton, M. J. (2005). The social skills problems of victims of bullying: Self, peer and teacher perceptions. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 313–328.
Gresham, F. M., & Elliot, S. N. (1990). Social Skills Rating System manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the Self- Perception Profile for Adolescents. Denver: University of Denver.
Hasebrink, U., Livingstone, S., & Haddon, L. (2008). Comparing children’s online opportunities and risks across Europe: Cross-national comparisons for EU Kids Online. London: EU.
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2009). Bullying beyond the Schoolyard:Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Jolliffe, D., & Farrington D. P. (2006). Examining the role between low empathy and bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 540-550.
Katzer, C., Fetchenhauer, D., & Belschak, F. (2009). Cyberbullying: Who are the victims? A comparison of victimization in internet chatrooms and victimization in school. Journal of Media Psychology, 21, 25-36.
Kaukiainen, A., Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K., Österman, K., Salmivalli,C., Rothberg, S., & Ahlbom, A. (1999). The Relationships Between Social Intelligence, Empathy, and Three Types of Aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 25, 81-89.
Kerig, P. K., & Stellwagen, K. K. (2010). Roles of callous-unemotional traits, narcissism, and Machiavellianism in childhood aggression. Journal of Psychopathological Behavior Assessment, 32, 343–352.
Kim, K. H., & Davis, K. E. (2009). Toward a comprehensive theory of problematic Internet use: Evaluating the role of self-esteem, anxiety, flow, and the self-rated importance of Internet activities. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 490-500.
Ko, C. H., Yen, J. Y., Liu, S. C., Huang, C. F., & Yen, C. F. (2009). The Associations Between Aggressive Behaviors and Internet Addiction and Online Activities in Adolescents. The Journal of adolescent health, 44, 598-605.
Κόκκινος, Κ. Μ., Αντωνιάδου, Ν., Δαλαρά, Ε., Κουφογάζου, Α., & Παπατζίκη, Α. (2012, Νοέμβριος). Κυβερνο-εκφοβισμός: Ο ρόλος της προσωπικότητας και των στρατηγικών αντιμετώπισης στρεσογόνων καταστάσεων σε προέφηβους μαθητές. Προφορική ανακοίνωση στο 4ο Πανελλήνιο Συνέδριο Συμβουλευτικής Ψυχολογίας, Θεσσαλονίκη.
Larochette, A., Murphy, A. N., & Craig, W. M. (2010). Racial bullying and victimization in Canadian school-aged children: Individual and school level effects. School Psychology International, 31, 389- 408.
Limber, S. P. (2007). Electronic bullying among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 22-30.
Livingstone, S., & Helsper, E. (2007). Gradations in digital inclusion: children, young people and the digital divide. New Μedia & Society, 9, 671-696.
Livingstone, S., Haddon, L., Görzig, A., & Ólafsson, K. (2011). Risks and safety on the internet: The perspective of European children. Full findings. LSE, London: EU Kids Online.
Μακρή-Μπότσαρη, Ε. (2001α). Πως αντιλαμβάνομαι τον εαυτό μου ΙΙΙ - ΠΑΤΕΜ ΙΙΙ. Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γράμματα.
Μακρή-Μπότσαρη, Ε. (2001β). Πως αντιλαμβάνομαι τον εαυτό μου IV - ΠΑΤΕΜ IV. Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γράμματα.
McQuail, D. (2005). Mcquail's Mass Communication Theory. 5th ed. London: SAGE Publications.
Morahan-Martin, J., & Schumacher, P. (2000). Incidence and correlates of pathological Internet use among college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 16, 13-29.
Peeters, M., Cillessen, A. N., & Scholte, R. J. (2010). Clueless or powerful? Identifying subtypes of bullies in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 1041–1052.
Reiter, S., & Lapidot-Lefler, N. (2007). Bullying among special education students with intellectual disabilities: Differences in social adjustment and social skills. Intellectual and developmental disabilities, 45, 174–181.
Riebel, J., Jager, R. S., & Fischer, U. C. (2009). Cyber-bullying in Germany- an exploration of prevalence, overlapping with real life bullying and coping strategies. Psychology Science Quarterly, 51, 298-314.
Rigby, K (2004). Why do some children bully at school? The contributions of negative attitudes towards victims and perceived expectations of friends, parents and teachers. School Psychology International, 26, 147-161.
Rivers, I., & Noret, N. (2010). ‘I h 8 u’: Findings from a five-year study of text and e-mail bullying. British Educational Research Journal, 36, 543-671.
Salmivalli, C., Kaukiainen, A., Kastaniemi, L., & Lagerspetz, K. M. (1999). Self-evaluated self-estee,. Peer-evaluated self-esteem, and defensive egotism asw predictors of adolescents' rarticipation in bullying situations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1268-1278.
Slater, M. D., Henry, K. L., Swaim, R. C., & Cardador, J. M. (2004). Vulnerable teens, vulnerable times: How sensation seeking, alienation, and victimization moderate the violent media content-aggression relation. Communication Research, 31, 642–668.
Slonje, R., Smith, P.K., & Frisen, A. (2012). Processes of cyberbullying, and feelings of remorse by bullies. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 244-259.
Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., & Tippett, N. (2006). An investigation into cyberbullying, its forms, awareness and impact, and the relationship between age and gender in cyberbullying. Retrieved October 2009 fromhttp://www.antibullyingalliance.org.uk/pdf/CyberbullyingreportFINAL230106.pdf.
Stephenson, M. T., Palmgreen, P., Hoyle, R. H., Donohew, L., Lorch, E. P., Colon, S. E. (1999). Short-term effects of an anti-marijuana media campaign targeting high sensation seeking adolescents. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 27, 175- 195.
Suler, J. (2004). The online disinhibition effect. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7: 321–326.
Sutton, J., Smith, P. K., & Swettenham, J. (1999). Bullying and ‘theory of mind’’: A critique of the ‘‘social skills deficit’’ view of antisocial behavior. Social Development, 8, 117–127.
Sygkollitou, E., Psalti, A., & Kapatzia, A. (2010). Cyberbullying among Greek adolescents. In J.A. Mora-Merchán & T. Jäger (Eds.), Cyberbullying – A Cross-National Comparison (pp. 101-113). Landau, Germany: Verlag Empirische Pädagogik.
Tsaliki, L. (2010). Take a walk on the wild side; media representations of online risks for children in the Greek press. In C. Sarikakis & L. Tsaliki (Eds.), The mass media, popular culture and the sex industry (pp. 17–45). Athens: Papazissis.
Van Baardewijk, Y., Andershed, H., Stegge, H., Nilsson, K., Scholte, E., & Vermeiren, R. (2010). The development of parallel short versions of the YPI and YPI-Child Version. The European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 26, 122–126.
Walrave, M., & Heirman, W. (2011). Cyberbullying: Predicting Victimization and perpetration. Children and Society, 5, 59–72.
Wang, J., Nansel, T. R. & Iannotti, R, J. (2010). Cyber and traditional Bullying: Differential association with depression. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48, 415-417.
Widyanto, L., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). An empirical study of problematic internet use and self-esteem. International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and learning, 1, 13-24.
Ybarra, M. L. & Mitchell, J. K. (2004). Online aggressor/targets, aggressors and targets: A comparison of associated youth characteristics. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1308–1316.
Ybarra, M., Mitchell, Κ., Finkelhor, & Wolak, J. (2007). Internet prevention messages: targeting the right online behaviors. Archives Pediatric Adolescence Medicine, 161, 138-145.
Ybarra, M., Mitchell, K., Wolak, J., & Finkelhor, D. (2006). Examining characteristics and associated distress related to Internet harassment: findings from the Second Youth Internet Safety Survey. Pediatrics, 118, 169- 177.
Antoniadou, N., & Kokkinos, C. M. (2013). A review of cyber-bullying research in Greece. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth. Advance online publication. DOI:10.1080/02673843.2013.778207.
Αντωνιάδου, N., & Κόκκινος, K. M. (2011). Ερωτηματολόγιο Εμπειριών Κυβερνο-εκφοβισμού & Θυματοποίησης (ΕΡΕΚΕΚΘΥ). Αδημοσίευτο Ερωτηματολόγιο.
Baldasare, A., Bauman, S., Goldman, L., & Robie, A. (2012). Cyberbullying? Voices ofcollege students. In L. A. Wankel, & C. Wankel, (Eds.), Misbehavior online in higher education (Cutting-edge Technologies in Higher Education, Volume 5) (pp. 127- 155). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Bargh, J. (2002). Beyond simple truth: The human-interest interaction. The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues, 58, 1-8.
Buffardi, L. E., & Campbell, W. K. (2008). Narcissism and social networking web sites. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1303–1314.
Calvete, E., Orue, I., Estévez, A., Villardón, L., & Padilla, P. (2010). Cyberbullying in adolescents: Modalities and aggressors’ profile. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1128–1135.
Campbell, M. A. (2007). Cyber bullying and young people: Treatment principles not simplistic advice. QUT Digital Repository. Retrieved June 2010 from http://eprints.qut.edu.au/14903/1/14903.pdf.
Campfield, D. C. (2006). Cyber bullying and victimization: Psychosocial characteristics of bullies, victims and bully/victims. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Montana). Retrieved July 2012 from http://etd.lib.umt.edu/ theses/available/etd-12112008-120806/unrestricted/umi-umt-1107.pdf.
Carney, J. V. (2000). Bullied to death: Perceptions of peer abuse and suicidal behaviour during adolescence. School Psychology International, 21, 213- 223.
Cochrane, K. R. (2008). Exploring Cyberbullying in Saskatchewan. (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Saskatchewan, Faculty of Graduate studies and research.
Cooper, G. (2005). Cyberspace bullying. Psychotherapy Networker 29. Retrieved August 2012 from www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa4016/is_200505/ai_n13636439.
Elinoff, J. M., Chafouleas, M. S., & Sassu, A. K. (2004). Bullying: Considerations for defining and intervening in school settings. Psychology in the Schools, 41, 887–896.
Ελληνική Στατιστική Αρχή (2008). Έρευνα χρήσης τεχνολογιών πληροφόρησης και επικοινωνίας από τα νοικοκυριά. Ανακτήθηκε τον Σεπτέμβριο του 2009 από http://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A1901/PressReleases/A1 901_SFA20_DT_AN_00_2008_01_F_GR.pdf
Fanti, K. A., Demetriou, A. G., & Hawa, V. V. (2012). A longitudinal study of cyberbullying: Examining risk and protective factors. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 168-181.
Fanti, K. A., Frick, P. J., & Georgiou, S. (2009). Linking callous-unemotional traits to instrumental and non-instrumental forms of aggression. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31, 285–298.
Fegenbush, B. S., & Olivier D. F. (2009). Cyberbullying: A literature Review. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Louisiana Education Research Association.
Fox, C. L., & Boulton, M. J. (2005). The social skills problems of victims of bullying: Self, peer and teacher perceptions. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 313–328.
Gresham, F. M., & Elliot, S. N. (1990). Social Skills Rating System manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
Harter, S. (1985). Manual for the Self- Perception Profile for Adolescents. Denver: University of Denver.
Hasebrink, U., Livingstone, S., & Haddon, L. (2008). Comparing children’s online opportunities and risks across Europe: Cross-national comparisons for EU Kids Online. London: EU.
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. W. (2009). Bullying beyond the Schoolyard:Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Jolliffe, D., & Farrington D. P. (2006). Examining the role between low empathy and bullying. Aggressive Behavior, 32, 540-550.
Katzer, C., Fetchenhauer, D., & Belschak, F. (2009). Cyberbullying: Who are the victims? A comparison of victimization in internet chatrooms and victimization in school. Journal of Media Psychology, 21, 25-36.
Kaukiainen, A., Björkqvist, K., Lagerspetz, K., Österman, K., Salmivalli,C., Rothberg, S., & Ahlbom, A. (1999). The Relationships Between Social Intelligence, Empathy, and Three Types of Aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 25, 81-89.
Kerig, P. K., & Stellwagen, K. K. (2010). Roles of callous-unemotional traits, narcissism, and Machiavellianism in childhood aggression. Journal of Psychopathological Behavior Assessment, 32, 343–352.
Kim, K. H., & Davis, K. E. (2009). Toward a comprehensive theory of problematic Internet use: Evaluating the role of self-esteem, anxiety, flow, and the self-rated importance of Internet activities. Computers in Human Behavior, 25, 490-500.
Ko, C. H., Yen, J. Y., Liu, S. C., Huang, C. F., & Yen, C. F. (2009). The Associations Between Aggressive Behaviors and Internet Addiction and Online Activities in Adolescents. The Journal of adolescent health, 44, 598-605.
Κόκκινος, Κ. Μ., Αντωνιάδου, Ν., Δαλαρά, Ε., Κουφογάζου, Α., & Παπατζίκη, Α. (2012, Νοέμβριος). Κυβερνο-εκφοβισμός: Ο ρόλος της προσωπικότητας και των στρατηγικών αντιμετώπισης στρεσογόνων καταστάσεων σε προέφηβους μαθητές. Προφορική ανακοίνωση στο 4ο Πανελλήνιο Συνέδριο Συμβουλευτικής Ψυχολογίας, Θεσσαλονίκη.
Larochette, A., Murphy, A. N., & Craig, W. M. (2010). Racial bullying and victimization in Canadian school-aged children: Individual and school level effects. School Psychology International, 31, 389- 408.
Limber, S. P. (2007). Electronic bullying among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 22-30.
Livingstone, S., & Helsper, E. (2007). Gradations in digital inclusion: children, young people and the digital divide. New Μedia & Society, 9, 671-696.
Livingstone, S., Haddon, L., Görzig, A., & Ólafsson, K. (2011). Risks and safety on the internet: The perspective of European children. Full findings. LSE, London: EU Kids Online.
Μακρή-Μπότσαρη, Ε. (2001α). Πως αντιλαμβάνομαι τον εαυτό μου ΙΙΙ - ΠΑΤΕΜ ΙΙΙ. Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γράμματα.
Μακρή-Μπότσαρη, Ε. (2001β). Πως αντιλαμβάνομαι τον εαυτό μου IV - ΠΑΤΕΜ IV. Αθήνα: Ελληνικά Γράμματα.
McQuail, D. (2005). Mcquail's Mass Communication Theory. 5th ed. London: SAGE Publications.
Morahan-Martin, J., & Schumacher, P. (2000). Incidence and correlates of pathological Internet use among college students. Computers in Human Behavior, 16, 13-29.
Peeters, M., Cillessen, A. N., & Scholte, R. J. (2010). Clueless or powerful? Identifying subtypes of bullies in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 1041–1052.
Reiter, S., & Lapidot-Lefler, N. (2007). Bullying among special education students with intellectual disabilities: Differences in social adjustment and social skills. Intellectual and developmental disabilities, 45, 174–181.
Riebel, J., Jager, R. S., & Fischer, U. C. (2009). Cyber-bullying in Germany- an exploration of prevalence, overlapping with real life bullying and coping strategies. Psychology Science Quarterly, 51, 298-314.
Rigby, K (2004). Why do some children bully at school? The contributions of negative attitudes towards victims and perceived expectations of friends, parents and teachers. School Psychology International, 26, 147-161.
Rivers, I., & Noret, N. (2010). ‘I h 8 u’: Findings from a five-year study of text and e-mail bullying. British Educational Research Journal, 36, 543-671.
Salmivalli, C., Kaukiainen, A., Kastaniemi, L., & Lagerspetz, K. M. (1999). Self-evaluated self-estee,. Peer-evaluated self-esteem, and defensive egotism asw predictors of adolescents' rarticipation in bullying situations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1268-1278.
Slater, M. D., Henry, K. L., Swaim, R. C., & Cardador, J. M. (2004). Vulnerable teens, vulnerable times: How sensation seeking, alienation, and victimization moderate the violent media content-aggression relation. Communication Research, 31, 642–668.
Slonje, R., Smith, P.K., & Frisen, A. (2012). Processes of cyberbullying, and feelings of remorse by bullies. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 244-259.
Smith, P. K., Mahdavi, J., Carvalho, M., & Tippett, N. (2006). An investigation into cyberbullying, its forms, awareness and impact, and the relationship between age and gender in cyberbullying. Retrieved October 2009 fromhttp://www.antibullyingalliance.org.uk/pdf/CyberbullyingreportFINAL230106.pdf.
Stephenson, M. T., Palmgreen, P., Hoyle, R. H., Donohew, L., Lorch, E. P., Colon, S. E. (1999). Short-term effects of an anti-marijuana media campaign targeting high sensation seeking adolescents. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 27, 175- 195.
Suler, J. (2004). The online disinhibition effect. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 7: 321–326.
Sutton, J., Smith, P. K., & Swettenham, J. (1999). Bullying and ‘theory of mind’’: A critique of the ‘‘social skills deficit’’ view of antisocial behavior. Social Development, 8, 117–127.
Sygkollitou, E., Psalti, A., & Kapatzia, A. (2010). Cyberbullying among Greek adolescents. In J.A. Mora-Merchán & T. Jäger (Eds.), Cyberbullying – A Cross-National Comparison (pp. 101-113). Landau, Germany: Verlag Empirische Pädagogik.
Tsaliki, L. (2010). Take a walk on the wild side; media representations of online risks for children in the Greek press. In C. Sarikakis & L. Tsaliki (Eds.), The mass media, popular culture and the sex industry (pp. 17–45). Athens: Papazissis.
Van Baardewijk, Y., Andershed, H., Stegge, H., Nilsson, K., Scholte, E., & Vermeiren, R. (2010). The development of parallel short versions of the YPI and YPI-Child Version. The European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 26, 122–126.
Walrave, M., & Heirman, W. (2011). Cyberbullying: Predicting Victimization and perpetration. Children and Society, 5, 59–72.
Wang, J., Nansel, T. R. & Iannotti, R, J. (2010). Cyber and traditional Bullying: Differential association with depression. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48, 415-417.
Widyanto, L., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). An empirical study of problematic internet use and self-esteem. International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and learning, 1, 13-24.
Ybarra, M. L. & Mitchell, J. K. (2004). Online aggressor/targets, aggressors and targets: A comparison of associated youth characteristics. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1308–1316.
Ybarra, M., Mitchell, Κ., Finkelhor, & Wolak, J. (2007). Internet prevention messages: targeting the right online behaviors. Archives Pediatric Adolescence Medicine, 161, 138-145.
Ybarra, M., Mitchell, K., Wolak, J., & Finkelhor, D. (2006). Examining characteristics and associated distress related to Internet harassment: findings from the Second Youth Internet Safety Survey. Pediatrics, 118, 169- 177.
