The relationship between social and gross motor skills in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in Greece: implications for practice
Published:
Nov 29, 2024
Keywords:
Keywords: Autism Spectrum Disorder; gross motor skills; social skills; TGMD-3; EET-SS
Abstract
Abstract
Introduction: Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder face significant difficulties in their social and motor development. Previous research has shown that motor difficulties associate and may predict social impairments in young children with the Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Purpose of the study: The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between gross motor and social skills development of children with ASD between seven and eleven years old. Methods: A cohort of 31 children (21 boys-67.7%, 10 girls) with ASD, and mean chronological age 9.3 ± 1.4 years old, from four primary special education schools in Greece has been studied. Social skills were assessed, by the responsible classroom teacher, using the Educational Evaluation Tool for Social Skills (EET-SS) in children with autism developed by Apteslis et al. (2012) and the children’s gross motor development was measured, by the researcher, using the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-3) (Ulrich, 2019). Results: Data analysis revealed that there was a moderate correlation between children’s social and gross motor skills. Additionally, the developmental age children’s scores on one set of TGMD-3 skills, specifically the TGMD-3 ball skills, were found to be associated with the most of the EET-SS children’s scores. Implications & Conclusion: The study showed that children’s specific social skills were correlated with specific gross motor skills, such as the skills associated with object manipulation. The relationship between social skills and gross-motor skills in children with ASD should be taken into consideration when designing and implementing assessment practices and educational programs for children with ASD in order for the children to improve both their gross-motor skills and social skills, and ultimately the quality of their everyday functioning, inside and outside of school.
Article Details
- How to Cite
-
Farsari, E., & Nitsiou, C. (2024). The relationship between social and gross motor skills in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) in Greece: implications for practice. Preschool and Primary Education, 12(2), 114–132. https://doi.org/10.12681/ppej.37196
- Section
- Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g. post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (preferably in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Allen, K. A., Bredero, B., Van Damme, T., Ulrich, D. A., & Simons, J. (2017). Test of Gross Motor Development-3 (TGMD-3) with the use of visual supports for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Validity and Reliability. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(3), 813–833. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-3005-0
APA. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. DSM Library. https://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/doi/book/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
Apteslis, N., Mitropoulou, E., & Tsakpini, K. (2012). Educational Evaluation Tool for children with autism in the field of Social Skills. https://specialeducation.gr/specialedu/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/deksiotites.pdf
Barbeau, E. B., Soulières, I., Dawson, M., Zeffiro, T. A., & Mottron, L. (2013). The level and nature of autistic intelligence III: Inspection time. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(1), 295–301. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029984
Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness: An Essay on autism and theory of mind. The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/4635.001.0001
Battah, H. W., Lotan, M., & Moran, D. S. (2023). The need for a motor sssessment tool for children with autism—An opinion article. Diagnostics, 13(12), 2095. https://doi.org/10.3390/diagnostics13122095
Brown, T., & Lalor, A. (2009). The Movement Assessment Battery for Children—Second Edition (MABC-2): A Review and Critique. Physical & Occupational Therapy In Pediatrics, 29(1), 86–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/01942630802574908
Cappadocia, M. C., & Weiss, J. A. (2011). Review of social skills training groups for youth with Asperger syndrome and high functioning autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5(1), 70–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.04.001
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2006). Mental health in the United States: Parental report of diagnosed autism in children aged 4-17 years--United States, 2003-2004. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 55(17), 481–486.
Chamberlain, B., Kasari, C., & Rotheram-Fuller, E. (2007). Involvement or Isolation? The social networks of children with autism in regular classrooms. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(2), 230–242. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0164-4
Chen, J. A., Peñagarikano, O., Belgard, T. G., Swarup, V., & Geschwind, D. H. (2015). The emerging picture of autism spectrum disorder: Genetics and pathology. Annual Review of Pathology, 10, 111–144. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pathol-012414-040405
Columna, L., Prieto, L. A., Beach, P., Russo, N., & Foley, J. T. (2021). A Randomized Feasibility trial of a fundamental motor skill parent-mediated intervention for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(23), 12398. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182312398
Copetti, F., Valentini, N., Deslandes, A., & Webster, K. (2021). Pedagogical support for the Test of Gross Motor Development – 3 for children with neurotypical development and with Autism Spectrum Disorder: validity for an animated mobile application. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 27, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2021.1906218
Craig, F., Lorenzo, A., Lucarelli, E., Russo, L., Fanizza, I., & Trabacca, A. (2018). Motor competency and social communication skills in preschool children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research: Official Journal of the International Society for Autism Research, 11(6), 893–902. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.1939
Dawson, M., Soulières, I., Ann Gernsbacher, M., & Mottron, L. (2007). The level and nature of autistic intelligence. Psychological Science, 18(8), 657–662. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01954.x
Forbes, A. S., & Yun, J. (2023). Visual Supports for Children with Autism in Physical Activity. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly: APAQ, 40(4), 781–806. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.2022-0157
Fournier, K. A., Hass, C. J., Naik, S. K., Lodha, N., & Cauraugh, J. H. (2010). Motor coordination in autism spectrum disorders: A synthesis and meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(10), 1227–1240. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-0981-3
Frith, U., & Happé, F. (1994). Autism: Beyond “theory of mind”. Cognition, 50(1), 115–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(94)90024-8
Fuentes, C. T., Mostofsky, S. H., & Bastian, A. J. (2009). Children with autism show specific handwriting impairments. Neurology, 73(19), 1532–1537. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c0d48c
Gandotra, A., Kotyuk, E., Szekely, A., Kasos, K., Csirmaz, L., & Cserjesi, R. (2020). Fundamental movement skills in children with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 78, 101632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2020.101632
Ghasemi, A., & Zahediasl, S. (2012). Normality tests for statistical analysis: A guide for non-statisticians. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 10(2), 486–489. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijem.3505
Gong, L., Liu, Y., Yi, L., Fang, J., Yang, Y., & Wei, K. (2020). Abnormal gait patterns in Autism Spectrum Disorder and their correlations with social impairments. Autism Research, 13(7), 1215–1226. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2302
Gonzalez, S. L., Alvarez, V., & Nelson, E. L. (2019). Do gross and fine motor skills differentially contribute to language Outcomes? A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1-16. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02670
Haleem, A., Javaid, M., Qadri, M. A., & Suman, R. (2022). Understanding the role of digital technologies in education: A review. Sustainable Operations and Computers, 3, 275–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susoc.2022.05.004
Hansen, S. G., Blakely, A. W., Dolata, J. K., Raulston, T., & Machalicek, W. (2014). Children with autism in the inclusive preschool classroom: A systematic review of single subject design Interventions on social communication skills. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 1(3), 192–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-014-0020-y
Harris, S. R. (2017). Early motor delays as diagnostic clues in autism spectrum disorder. European Journal of Pediatrics, 176(9), 1259–1262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00431-017-2951-7
Hedgecock, J. B., Dannemiller, L. A., Shui, A. M., Rapport, M. J., & Katz, T. (2018). Associations of gross motor delay, behavior, and quality of Life in young children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Physical Therapy, 98(4), 251–259. https://doi.org/10.1093/ptj/pzy006
Hilton, C. L., Zhang, Y., Whilte, M. R., Klohr, C. L., & Constantino, J. (2012). Motor impairment in sibling pairs concordant and discordant for autism spectrum disorders. Autism: The International Journal of Research and Practice, 16(4), 430–441. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361311423018
Hirata, S., Okuzumi, H., Kitajima, Y., Hosobuchi, T., Nakai, A., & Kokubun, M. (2014). Relationship between motor skill and social impairment in children with autism spectrum disorders. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 60(4), 251–256. https://doi.org/10.1179/2047387713Y.0000000033
Hobson, R. P. (2019). Autism and the development of mind. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203765272
Holloway, J. M., Long, T. M., & Biasini, F. J. (2021). The intersection of gross motor abilities and participation in children with autism spectrum disorder. Infants and Young Children, 34(3), 178–189. https://doi.org/10.1097/iyc.0000000000000192
Howlin, P., Mawhood, L., & Rutter, M. (2000). Autism and developmental receptive language disorder—a follow-up comparison in early adult Life. II: Social, behavioural, and psychiatric Outcomes. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 41(5), 561–578. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00643
Johnson, C. P., Myers, S. M., & American Academy of Pediatrics Council on children with disabilities. (2007). Identification and evaluation of children with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics, 120(5), 1183–1215. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-2361
Jullien, S. (2021). Screening for autistic spectrum disorder in early childhood. BMC Pediatrics, 21(1), 349-358. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-021-02700-5
Kangarani-Farahani, M., Malik, M. A., & Zwicker, J. G. (2024). Motor impairments in children with autism spectrum disorder: A systematic eeview and meta-analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 54(5), 1977–1997. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-023-05948-1
Karpoutzaki, C., Markodimitraki, M., Kypriotaki, M., & Charitaki, G. (2023). The impact of a therapy dog program on children’s with ASD social skills, communication, and behavioral difficulties. Preschool and Primary Education, 11(2), 284-317. https://doi.org/10.12681/ppej.32430
Ketcheson, L. R., Pitchford, E. A., & Wentz, C. F. (2021). The relationship between developmental coordination disorder and concurrent deficits in social communication and repetitive behaviors among children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Autism Research: Official Journal of the International Society for Autism Research, 14(4), 804–816. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2469
Khasawneh, M. A. S. (2023). Impact of applying evidence-based practicdes to reduce stereotyped behavior in children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University, 58(5), 631-641. http://www.jsju.org/index.php/journal/article/view/1866
Kindregan, D., Gallagher, L., & Gormley, J. (2015). Gait deviations in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A review. Autism Research and Treatment, 2015, 741480. https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/741480
Kozlowski, A. M., Matson, J. L., & Belva, B. C. (2012). Social skills differences between the Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 24(2), 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-011-9260-2
Kypriotaki, Μ., & Markodimitraki, M. (2018). Playful Interactions between twins with autism and teachers and peers: A case study. Preschool and Primary Education, 6(1), 1–22. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/187379/
Lord, C., Brugha, T. S., Charman, T., Cusack, J., Dumas, G., Frazier, T., Jones, E. J. H., Jones, R. M., Pickles, A., State, M. W., Taylor, J. L., & Veenstra-VanderWeele, J. (2020). Autism spectrum disorder. Nature Reviews. Disease Primers, 6(1), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-019-0138-4
Magistro, D., Piumatti, G., Carlevaro, F., Sherar, L. B., Esliger, D. W., Bardaglio, G., Magno, F., Zecca, M., & Musella, G. (2020). Psychometric proprieties of the Test of Gross Motor Development–Third Edition in a large sample of Italian children. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 23(9), 860–865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2020.02.014
Marouli, E.-A., Venetsanou, F., Kambas, A., & Koutsouba, M. (2021). The effect of a Greek traditional dance programme on the social skills of children with autism spectrum disorder. European Psychomotricity Journal, 13, 35–44.
McMahon, C. M., Vismara, L. A., & Solomon, M. (2013). Measuring changes in social behavior during a social skills Intervention for higher-functioning children and adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(8), 1843–1856. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1733-3
Missuri Autism Guidelines Initiative. (2010). Autism Spectrum Disorders: Missouri Best Practices guidelines for screening, diagnosis, and assessment. Missouri Department of Mental Health.
Mohd Nordin, A., Ismail, J., & Kamal Nor, N. (2021). Motor development in children with autism spectrum disorder. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 9, 598276, 1-7 https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2021.598276
Morales, J., Pierantozzi, E., Fukuda, D. H., Garcia, V., Guerra-Balic, M., Sevilla-Sánchez, M., & Carballeira, E. (2022). Improving motor skills and psychosocial behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorder through an adapted judo program. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1067310. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1067310
Nauman, J. E., & Ingersoll, B. (2023). Examining the role of attention problems in motor stereotypy in children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 101, 102091. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2022.102091
Ohara, R., Kanejima, Y., Kitamura, M., & Izawa, K. P. (2019). Association between Social Skills and motor skills in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A systematic review. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 10(1), 276-296. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe10010022
Olley, J. G. (1986). The TEACCH curriculum for teaching social behavior to children with autism. In E. Schopler & G. B. Mesibov (Eds.), Social Behavior in Autism (pp. 351–373). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2242-7_17
Pitchford, E. A., & Webster, E. K. (2021). Clinical validity of the test of gross motor development-3 in children with disabilities from the U.S. National Normative Sample. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 38(1), 62–78. https://doi.org/10.1123/apaq.2020-0023
Posar, A., & Visconti, P. (2022). Early motor signs in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Children (Basel, Switzerland), 9(2), 294 1-18. https://doi.org/10.3390/children9020294
Prieto, L. A., Meera, B., Barry, A., Swarup, G., Asmus, J., Ku, B., Roth, K., Foley, J. T., & Columna, L. (2023). A randomized parent-mediated physical activity intervention for autistic children. Autism Research: Official Journal of the International Society for Autism Research, 16(7), 1450–1461. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2969
Pusponegoro, H. D., Efar, P., Soedjatmiko, Soebadi, A., Firmansyah, A., Chen, H.-J., & Hung, K.-L. (2016). Gross motor profile and Its Association with Socialization Skills in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Pediatrics & Neonatology, 57(6), 501–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedneo.2016.02.004
Quill, K. A. (Ed.). (1995). Teaching children with autism: Strategies to enhance communication and socialization (1st edition). Cengage Learning.
Rey, E., Carballo-Fazanes, A., Varela-Casal, C., & Abelairas-Gómez, C. (2020). Reliability of the test of gross motor development: A systematic review. PLoS ONE, 15(7), e0236070. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236070
Rutter, M. (1983). Cognitive deficits in the pathogenesis of autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 24(4), 513–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1983.tb00129.x
Schulz, S. E., Kelley, E., Anagnostou, E., Nicolson, R., Georgiades, S., Crosbie, J., Schachar, R., Ayub, M., & Stevenson, R. A. (2023). Sensory processing patterns predict problem behaviours in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 7(1), 46–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41252-022-00269-3
Sharma, S. R., Gonda, X., & Tarazi, F. I. (2018). Autism Spectrum Disorder: Classification, diagnosis and therapy. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 190, 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.05.007
Shetreat-Klein, M., Shinnar, S., & Rapin, I. (2014). Abnormalities of joint mobility and gait in children with autism spectrum disorders. Brain and Development, 36(2), 91–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.braindev.2012.02.005
Soleymani, M., Dehghani Zadeh, J., Daneshyar, E., & Parsafar, P. (2019). The validity and reliability of Ulrich – 3rd (TGMD-3) with visual support among autism boys. Motor Behavior, 11(37), 33–52. https://doi.org/10.22089/mbj.2018.6220.1706
Ulrich, D. A. (2019). TGMD-3: Test of Gross Motor Development–Third Edition. Pro Ed.
Wang, L. A. L., Petrulla, V., Zampella, C. J., Waller, R., & Schultz, R. T. (2022). Gross motor impairment and its relation to social skills in autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review and two meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 148(3–4), 273-300. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000358
Webster, E. K., & Ulrich, D. A. (2017). Evaluation of the psychometric properties of the test of Gross Motor Development—Third Edition. Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 5(1), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1123/jmld.2016-0003
West, K. L. (2019). Infant Motor development in autism spectrum disorder: A synthesis and meta-analysis. Child Development, 90(6), 2053–2070. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13086
WHO. (2019). International Classification of Diseases (ICD). https://www.who.int/standards/classifications/classification-of-diseases
Wilson, R. B., Enticott, P. G., & Rinehart, N. J. (2018). Motor development and delay: Advances in assessment of motor skills in autism spectrum disorders. Current Opinion in Neurology, 31(2), 134–139. https://doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0000000000000541
Wilson, R. B., McCracken, J. T., Rinehart, N. J., & Jeste, S. S. (2018). What’s missing in autism spectrum disorder motor assessments? Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 10(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11689-018-9257-6
Zamani Jam, A., Talab, R. H., Sheikh, M., Torabi, F., & Rafie, F. (2018). The effect of 16 weeks gymnastic training on social skills and neuropsychiatric functions of autistic children. Sport Sciences for Health, 14(1), 209–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11332-017-0417-y
Zampella, C. J., Wang, L. A. L., Haley, M., Hutchinson, A. G., & de Marchena, A. (2021). Motor skill differences in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A clinically focused review. Current Psychiatry Reports, 23(10), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-021-01280-6
Zhou, B., Xu, Q., Li, H., Zhang, Y., Li, D., Dong, P., Wang, Y., Lu, P., Zhu, Y., & Xu, X. (2022). Motor impairments in Chinese toddlers with autism spectrum disorder and its relationship with social communicative skills. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.938047
Zimmer, R. (2007). Handbook of Psychokinetics. Theory and practice of psychomotor Intervention (Kampas E). Athlotypo.
