Differential diagnosis of neurological diseases of small ruminants
Abstract
Objective of the present review is the description of diagnostic approach in neurological cases in small ruminants. To improve description purposes in the present paper, neurological disorders of small ruminants are classified as follows: (a) congenital neurological disorders (vitamin A deficiency, copper deficiency, disorders of viral aetiology [including border disease and Schmallenberg disease], disorders with a genetic background), (b) acquired neurological disorders with an acute course (acute coenurosis, Aujeszky’s disease, bacterial meningoencephalitis, botulism, copper deficiency, copper poisoning, disorders following injury, hypocalcaemia, hypomagnesaemia, listeriosis, louping-ill, rare disorders of parasitic aetiology, pregnancy toxaemia, rabies, tetanus, tick paralysis, toxicoses, type D enterotoxaemia, vitamin B1 deficiency) and (c) acquired neurological disorders with a long-standing course (caprine arthritis-encephalitis, central nervous system abscesses, chronic coenurosis, neoplastic disorders, ovine lentiviral encephalomyelitis, scrapie).
Article Details
- Zitationsvorschlag
-
GIADINIS (Ν.Δ. ΓΙΑΔΙΝΗΣ) N. D., POLIZOPOULOU (Ζ.Σ. ΠΟΛΥΖΟΠΟΥΛΟΥ) Z. S., & FTHENAKIS (Γ.Χ. ΦΘΕΝΑΚΗΣ) G. C. (2017). Differential diagnosis of neurological diseases of small ruminants. Journal of the Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society, 64(4), 275–296. https://doi.org/10.12681/jhvms.15507
- Ausgabe
- Bd. 64 Nr. 4 (2013)
- Rubrik
- Review Articles
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
· Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
· Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g. post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
· Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (preferably in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.
Downloads
Keine Nutzungsdaten vorhanden.
Literaturhinweise
Al-Qarawi AA, Mahmoud OM, Haroun EM, Sobaih MA, Adam SEI (1999) Comparative effects of diazinon and malathion in Najdi sheep. Vet Hum Toxicol 41:287-289.
Allen AL, Goupil BA, Valentine BA (2012) A retrospective study of spinal cord lesions in goats submitted to three veterinary diagnostic laboratories. Can Vet J 53:639-642.
Almeida ACS, Ribeiro MG, Paes AC, Megid J, Oliveira VB, Franco MMJ (2012) Tetanus in small ruminants: retrospective study of major clinical and epidemiological findings in 11 cases. Arq Brasil Med Vet Z oot 64:1060-1064.
Andrews AH, Holland-Howes VE, Wilkinson JID (1997) Naturally occurring pregnancy toxaemia in the ewe and treatment with recombinant bovine somatotropin. Small Rumin Res 23:191-197.
Aslani MR, Bazargani TT, Ashkar AA, Movasaghi AR, Raoofi A, Atiabi N (1998) Outbreak of tetanus in lambs. Vet Rec 142:518-519.
Bago Z , Bauder B, Baumgartner W, Weissenbock H (2001) A retrospective study on the etiology of encephalitis in ruminants. Wiener Tierarztl Monatss 88:289-303.
Barlow RM, Patterson DSP (1982) Border disease of sheep. A virus-induced teratogenic disorder. Adv Vet Med 36(Suppl):3-87.
Bath GF, van Wyk JA, Pettey K P (2005) Control measures for some important and unusual goat diseases in southern Africa. Small Rumin Res 60:127-140.
Bickhardt K , Henze P, Ganter M (1998). Clinical findings and differential diagnosis in ketosis and hypocalcaemia of sheep. Deut Tierarztl Wochens 105:413-419.
Bogin E, Soback S, Immelman A (1985). Transketolase activity in the blood of cattle and sheep in relation to thiamine deficiency. J Vet Med A 32:135-139.
Bostwick JL (1982) Copper toxicosis in sheep. J Am Vet Med Assoc 180:386-387.
Bourke CA (1995) The clinical differentiation of nervous and muscular locomotor disorders of sheep in Australia. Aust Vet J 72:228-234.
Bouwstra RJ, K ooi EA, de K luijver EP, Verstraten ERAM, Bongers JH, van Maanen C, Wellenberg GJ, van der Spek AN, van der Poel WHM (2013) Schmallenberg virus outbreak in the Netherlands: routine diagnostics and test results. Vet Microbiol 165:102-108.
Braun JP, Trumel C, Bezille P (2010). Clinical biochemistry in sheep: a selected review. Small Rumin Res 92:10-18.
Brozos C, Mavrogianni VS, Fthenakis GC (2011) Treatment and control of peri-parturient metabolic diseases: pregnancy toxemia, hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia. Vet Clin N Am Food Anim Pract 27:105-113.
Brugere-Picoux J (2008) Ovine listeriosis. Small Rumin Res 76:12-20.
Campero CM, Odeon AC, Cipolia A, Moore DP, Poso MA, Odriozola E (2002) Demonstration of Listeria monocytogenes by immunochemistry in formalin-fixed brain tissues from natural cases of ovine and bovine encephalitis. J Vet Med B 49:379-383.
Cardinaux L, Z ahno ML, Deubelbeiss M, Z anoni R, Vogt HR, Bertoni G (2013) Virological and phylogenetic characterization of attenuated small ruminant lentivirus isolates eluding efficient serological detection. Vet Microbiol 162:572-581.
Chaintoutis SC, K iossis E, Giadinis ND, Brozos CN, Sailleaue C, Viarouge C, Breard E, Papanastassopoulou M, Z ientara S, Papadopoulos O, Dovas CI (2013) Evidence of Schmallenberg virus circulation in ruminants in Greece. Trop Anim Health Prod. doi: 10.1007/s11250-013-0449-5.
Dagleish MP, Bevanides J, Chianini F (2010) Immunohistochemical diagnosis of infectious diseases of sheep. Small Rumin Res 92:19-35.
De Bosschere H, Roels S, Vanopdenbosch E (2003) Ependymoma in a sheep. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift 72:364-365.
Dennis SM (1993) Congenital defects of sheep. Vet Clin N Am Food Anim Pract 9:203-217.
Doherty ML, Bassett HF, Breathnach R, Monaghan ML, McErlean BA (1989) Outbreak of acute coenuriasis in adult sheep in Ireland. Vet Rec 125:185.
Dyson DA, Linklater K A (1979) Problems in the diagnosis of coenurosis in sheep. Vet Rec 104:528-529.
Edwards G, Foster A, Livesey C (2009). Use of ocular fluids to aid postmortem diagnosis in cattle and sheep. In Pract 31:22-25.
El-Boshy ME, El-Khodery SA, Gadalla HA, El-Ashker MR (2012) Prognostic significance of selected immunological and biochemical parameters in the cerebrospinal fluid of Ossimi sheep with encephalitic listeriosis. Small Rumin Res 104:179- 184.
Elgerwi Α, Bires J (1999) Distribution of minerals in organs of sheep after intoxication with copper from industrial emissions. Czech J Anim Sci 44:487-495.
Eltahir YM, Dovas CI, Papanastassopoulou M, K oumbati M, Giadinis N, Verghese-Nikolakai S, K optopoulos G (2006)Development of a seminested PCR using degenerate primers for the generic detection of small ruminant lentivirus proviral DNA. J Virol Meth 135:240-246.
Esfandiari A, Dehghan A (2010) Several congenital abnormalities in a neonate of a Mixed Mehraban sheep. Turk J Vet Anim Sci 34:553-556.
Evans WC, Evans IA, Humphreys DJ, Lewin B, Davies WEJ, Axford RFE (1975) Induction of thiamine deficiency in sheep, with lesions similar to those of cerebrocortical necrosis. J Comp Pathol 85:253-267.
Foster A, Livesey C, Edwards G (2007) Magnesium disorders in ruminants. In Pract 29:534-539.
Fragkou IA, Mavrogianni VS, Fthenakis GC (2010) Diagnostic investigation of cases of deaths of newborn lambs. Small Rumin Res 92:41-44.
Frost JW, Westphaling I, K rauss H (1991). Detection of Border disease in sheep. Tierarztl Umschau 46:533-536.
Ganter M, Henze P, Wohlsein P (2007) Clinic and CNS pathology of natural Visna cases. Tierarztl Praxis 35:219-224.
Garcia-Gomez F, Williams PA (2000) Magnesium metabolism in ruminant animals and its relationship to other inorganic elements. Asian Austral J Anim Sci 13:158-170.
Giadinis ND, Arsenos G, Polizopoulou Z (2008) Polioncephalomalacia in small ruminant flocks. In: Proceedings of 1st Greek Veterinary Congress for Farm Animal Medicine, Food Safety and Hygiene, Consumer Protection (Athens, Greece), p. 140.
Giadinis ND, Panousis NK, Polizopoulou Z , K aratzias H (2006) Neurological examination of small ruminants. J Hell Vet Med Soc 57:11-18.
Giadinis ND, Papaioannou N, K ritsepi-Konstantinou M, Roubies N, Raikos N, K aratzias H (2009a) Acute encephalopathy and clinical pathology findings in a sheep with chronic copper poisoning. Turk J Vet Anim Sci 33:363 366.
Giadinis ND, Papaioannou NG, Tsaousi P, K outsoumpas A, Fytianou A, K aratzias H (2012a) Vertebral absence in a lamb with vitamin A deficiency. Pak Vet J 32:295-297.
Giadinis ND, Psychas V, Polizopoulou Z , Papadopoulos E, Papaioannou N, K omnenou ATh, Thomas A-L, Petridou EJ, Kritsepi-Konstantinou M, Lafi SQ, Brellou GD (2012b) Acute coenurosis of dairy sheep from 11 flocks in Greece. N Z Vet J 60:247-253.
Giadinis ND, Raikos N, Loukopoulos P, Malliarakis E, K aratzias H (2009b) Carbamate poisoning in a dairy goat herd:
clinicopathological findings and therapeutic approach. N Z Vet J 57:392-394.
Gonzalo-Orden JM, Diez A, Altonaga JR, Gonzalo JM, Orden MA (1999). Computed tomographic findings in ovine coenurosis. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 40:441-444.
Gougoulis DA, K yriazakis I, Fthenakis GC (2010) Diagnostic significance of behaviour changes of sheep: a selected review. Small Rumin Res 92:52-56.
Green LE (2010) Epidemiological information in sheep health management. Small Rumin Res 92:57-66.
Hamel HD, Gother R (1978) Influence of infestation rate on tick paralysis in sheep induced by Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi Neumann 1897. Vet Parasitol 4:183-191.
Handeland K (1991) Cerebrospinal elaphostrongylosis in sheep in Northern Norway. J Vet Med B 38:773-780.
Henderson JP, Graham DA, Stewart D (1995). An outbreak of Aujeszky’s disease in sheep in Northern Ireland. Vet Rec 136:555-557.
Hoffmann B, Scheuch M, Höper D, Jungblut R, Holsteg M, Schirrmeier H, Eschbaumer M, Goller K V, Wernike K , Fischer M, Breithaupt A, Mettenleiter TC, Beer M, (2012) Novel orthobunyavirus in cattle, Europe, 2011. Emerg Infect Dis 18:469-472.
Horino R, Itabisashi T, Hirano K (1994). Biochemical and pathological findings on sheep and calves dying of experimental cerebrocortical necrosis. J Vet Med Sci 56:481- 485.
Humann-Zichank E, Wohlsein P, Tipold A, Schroder H, Andreae A, Egen S, Markus W, Ganter M (2002) Suppurative encephalitis with recurring central nervous disorders in a goat. Tierarztl Umschau 57:249-254.
Jean-Blain C (2010) Polioencephalommalacia in ruminants, thiamine and sulphur. Bull Acad Vet France 163:143-148.
Jeffrey M, Duff JP, Higgins RJ, Simpson VR, Jackman R, Jones TO, Mechie SC, Livesey CT (1994).
Polioencephalomalacia associated with the ingestion of ammonium sulfate by sheep and cattle. Vet Rec 134:343-348.
Jeffrey M, González L (2007) Scrapie. In: (ed: Aitken ID) Diseases of Sheep, 4th edn. Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 241-250.
Jeffrey M, Higgins RJ (1992) Brain lesions of naturally occurring pregnancy toxaemia of sheep. Vet Pathol 29:301-307.
Jolly RD, Johnstone AC, Williams SD, Z hang K , Jordan TW (2006) Segmental axonopathy of merino sheep in New
Zealand. N Z Vet J 54:210-217.
Jones B, Luthman J (1978) Feeding-induced hypocalcaemia studies on uptake of Ca-47 from gastrointestinal tract of sheep. Acta Vet Scand 19:204-214.
Johnstone AC, Johnson CB, Malcolm K E, Jolly RD (2005) Cerebellar cortical abiotrophy in Wiltshire sheep. N Z Vet J 53:242-245.
Juste RA, Leginagoikoa I, Villoria M, Minguijon E, Elguezabal N, Boix C, Arrazola I, Perez K , González L (2013) Control of brucellosis and of respiratory Small Ruminant Lentivirus infection in small ruminants in the Basque country, Spain. Small Rumin Res 110:115-119.
Kaba J, Nowicki M, Sobczak-Filipiak Malgorzata, Witkowski L, Nowicka D, Czopowicz M, Szalus-Jordanow O, Bagnicka E (2011) Case-control studies on the occurrence of the neurologic form of caprine arthritis-encephalitis in Poland. Med Weter 67:263-266.
Kawas JR, Andrade-Montemayor H, Lu CD (2010). Strategic nutrient supplementation of free-ranging goats. Small Rumin Res 89:234-243.
Komnenou AT, Argyroudis St, Giadinis N, Dessiris A (2000) Results from the surgical treatment of coenuriasis (gid) in
sheep in Greece. Vet Rec 147:242-244.
Konold T, Bone G, Vidal-Diez A, Tortosa R, Davis A, Dexter G, Hill P, Jeffrey M, Simmons M, Chaplin MJ, Bellworthy SJ,
Berthelin-Baker C (2008) Pruritus is a common feature in sheep infected with the BSE agent. BMC Vet Res 4:16.
Kosgey IS, Rowlands GJ, van Arendonk JAM, Baker RL (2008) Small ruminant production in smallholder and pastoral/ extensive farming systems in K enya. Small Rumin Res 77:11-24.
Krueger N, Reid HW (1994) Detection of Louping-ill virus in formalin-fixed, paraffin wax-embedded tissues of mice, sheep and a pig by the avidin-biotin complex immunoperoxidase technique. Vet Rec 135:224-225.
Laven RA, Lawrence K E (2012) An evaluation of the effect of clotting on the recovery of copper from caprine blood. Vet J 192:232-235.
Laven RA, Livesey CT (2005) The diagnosis of copper related disease, part 2: copper responsive disorders. Cattle Pract 13:55- 60.
Laven RA, Smith SL (2008) Copper deficiency in sheep: an assessment of the relationship between concentrations of copper in serum and plasma. N Z Vet J 56:334-338.
Lewis C (1998) Aspects of clostridial diseases in sheep. In Pract 20:494-499.
Lewis CJ (2007) Clostridial Diseases. In: (ed: Aitken ID) Diseases of Sheep, 4th edn. Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 156-167
Lewis CJ (2011) Control of important clostridial diseases of sheep. Vet Clin N Am Food Anim Pract 27:121-126.
Lewis NJ, Fallah-Rad AH, Connor ML (1997) Copper toxicity in confinement-housed ram lambs. Can Vet J 38:496-498.
Lievaart-Peterson K , Luttikholt SJM, Van den Brom R, Vellema P (2012) Schmallenberg virus infection in small ruminants -First review of the situation and prospects in Northern Europe. Small Rumin Res 106:71-76.
Lima EF, Riet-Correa F, Tabosa IM, Dantas AFM, Medeiros JM, Junior, GS 2005. Polioencephalomalacia in goats and sheep in the semiarid region of northeastern Brazil. Pesq Veter Brasil 25:9-14.
Loken T, Bjerkas I (1991) Experimental pestivirus infections in pregnant goats. J Comp Pathol 105:123-140.
Lovatt FM (2010) Clinical examination of sheep. Small Rumin Res 92:72-77.
Low JC, Donachie W (1997) A review of Listeria monocytogenes and listeriosis. Vet J 153:9-29.
Low JC, Wright F, McLauchlin J, Donachie W (1993) Serotyping and distribution of Listeria isolates from cases of ovine listeriosis. Vet Rec 133:165-166.
Malone FE, Hartley HM, Skuce RA (2010) Bacteriological examinations in sheep health management. Small Rumin Res 92:78-83.
Martens H, Schweigel M (2000) Pathophysiology of grass tetany and other hypomagnesemias - Implications for clinical
management. Vet Clin N Am Food Anim Pract 16:339-348.
Mavrogianni VS, Brozos C (2008). Reflections on the causes and the diagnosis of peri-parturient losses of ewes. Small Rumin Res 76:77-82.
Menzies PI (2012) Vaccination programs for reproductive disorders of small ruminants. Anim Reprod Sci 130:162-172.
McCoy MA (2004) Hypomagnesaemia and new data on vitreous humour magnesium concentration as a post-mortem marker in ruminants. Magnes Res 17:137-145.
McDowell LR (2000) Vitamins in Animal and Human Nutrition, 2nd edn. Iowa State University Press, Ames.
Mohi El-Din MM (2010) The significance of subarachnoid cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the development of metacestode of Coenurus cerebralis in sheep with reference to its pathological effect. Global Vet 4:343-348.
Nettleton PF, Entrican G (1995). Ruminant pestiviruses. Br Vet J 151:615-642.
Nettleton PF, Gilray JA, Russo P, Dlissi E (1998). Border disease in sheep and goats. Vet Res 29:327-340.
Oruc E (2009) Cerebellar hypoplasia and hydrocephalus in lambs. Rev Med Vet 160:265-269.
Paltrinieri S, Varcasia A, Cazzaniga S, Giordano A, Pipia AP, Marrosu R, Scala A (2010) Brain creatine kinase isoenzyme (CK-BB) as a possible biomarker for the diagnosis in vivo of ovine coenurosis in a naturally infected flock. Small Rum Res 94:180-184.
Panousis N, Brozos C, Fthenakis GC, K aratzias H (2001) Pregnancy toxemia of ewes. Bull Hell Vet Med Soc 52:89-96.
Panousis N, Brozos Ch, K aragiannis I, Giadinis ND, Lafi S, Kritsepi-Konstantinou M (2012) Evaluation of Precision Xceed® meter for on-site monitoring of blood β-hydroxybutyric acid and glucose concentrations in dairy sheep. Res Vet Sci 93:435-439.
Papahristou A (2012) Investigation into the Nervous Diseases of Small Ruminants. Postgraduate dissertation, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
Papaioannou N, Giadinis ND, Tsaousi P (2013) Concurrent scrapie and chronic coenurosis in two Chios sheep. Slov Vet Res 50:35-40.
Patton K M, Bildfell RJ, Anderson ML, Cebra CK, Christopher K, Valentine BA (2012) Fatal caprine arthritis encephalitis virus-like infection in 4 Rocky Mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus). J Vet Diagn Invest 24:392-396.
Pau A, Turtas S, Brambilla M, Leoni A, Rosa M, Viale GL (1987) Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging of cerebral coenurosis. Surg Neurol 27:548-552.
Payne JH, Hogg RA, Otter A, Roest HIJ, Livesey CT 2011. Emergence of suspected type D botulism in ruminants in England and Wales (2001 to 2009), associated with exposure to broiler litter. Vet Rec 168(24), doi no. 10.1136/vr.d1846.
Pepin M, Bouloy M, Bird BH, K emp A, Paweska J (2010) Rift Valley fever virus (Bunyaviridae: Phlebovirus): an update on pathogenesis, molecular epidemiology, vectors, diagnostics and prevention. Vet Res 41:61.
Prakash R, Adhikari SSS, Bedi SK (1995) Atypical form of rabies in sheep in an organised sheep breeding farm. Ind Vet J 72:653-654.
Pritchard GC, Jeffrey M, Welchman DD, Windsor RS, Morgan G (1994). Multiple cases of Dandy-Walker malformation in three sheep flocks. Vet Rec 135:163-164.
Pritchard GC, McConnell I (2007) Maedi-Visna. In: (ed: Aitken ID) Diseases of Sheep, 4th edn. Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 217-223.
Pusterla N, Caplazi P, Braun U (1997) Cerebrospinal nematodiasis in seven goats. Schweiz Arch Tier 139:282-289.
Ramos JJ, Marca C, Loste A, de Jalon JAG, Fernandez A, Cubel T (2003) Biochemical changes in apparently normal sheep from flocks affected by polioencephalomalacia. Vet Res Comm 27:111-124.
Regassa A, Moje N, Megersa B, Beyene D, Sheferaw D, Debela E, Abunna F, Skjerve E (2013) Major causes of organs and carcass condemnation in small ruminants slaughtered at Luna Export Abattoir, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia. Pr Vet Med 110:139-148.
Reid HW, Chianini F (2007) Louping-ill. In: Diseases of Sheep, 4th edn. ID Aitken (ed), Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
Riet-Correa F, Medeiros RMT, Tokarnia CH, de Carvalho CJS, Franklin FLAA, Dias ACS, Ferreira RMM, Silva SMMS
(2012) Botulism by Clostridium botulinum type C in goats associated with osteophagia. Small Rumin Res 106:201-205.
Rings DM (2004) Clostridial disease associated with neurologic signs: tetanus, botulism and enterotoxemia. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 20:379-391.
Rissi DR, Pierezan F, K ommers GD, Barros CSL (2008) Occurrence of rabies in sheep in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Pesq Vet Brasil 28:495-500.
Robson AB, Sykes R, McKinnon AE, Bell ST (2004). A model of magnesium metabolism in young sheep: transactions between plasma, cerebrospinal fluid and bone. Br J Nutr 91:73-79.
Roubies N, Giadinis ND, Polizopoulou Z , Argiroudis S (2008) A retrospective study of chronic copper poisoning in 79 sheep flocks in Greece (1987-2007). J Vet Pharmacol Ther 31:181-183.
Sarafidou T, Stamatis C, K alozoumi G, Spyrou V, Fthenakis GC, Billinis C, Mamuris Z (2013) Toll like receptor 9 (TLR9) polymorphism G520R in sheep is associated with seropositivity for Small Ruminant Lentivirus. Plos One 8(5):e63901
Sargison ND (2008) Sheep Flock Health: a Planned Approach. Blackwell, Oxford.
Sargison ND, Scott PR (2010) The implementation and value of diagnostic procedures in sheep health management. Small Rumin Res 92:2-9.
Sargison ND, Scott PR, Penny CD, Pirie RS (1994) Polioencephalomalacia associated with chronic copper poisoning in a Suffolk ram lamb. Vet Rec 135:556-557.
Sawyer MM (1992) Border disease of sheep. The disease in the newborn, adolescent and adult. Comp Immunol Microbiol Inf Dis 15:171-177.
Sawyer MM, Schore CE, Osburn BI (1991). Border disease of sheep. Aspects for diagnostic and epidemiologic consideration. Arch Virol 3(Suppl):97-100.
Schniewind A, Gothe R, Neu H (1983). On the pathophysiology of tick paralysis of sheep caused by Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi Neumann 1897. Berl Munch Tierarztl Wochens 96:81-85.
Schweizer G, Fuhrer B, Braun U (2004) Signs of spinal cord disease in two heifers caused by Listeria monocytogenes. Vet Rec 154:54-55.
Scott PR (2007) Other nervous diseases. In: (ed: Aitken ID) Diseases of Sheep, 4th edn. Blackwell, Oxford, pp. 259-270.
Scott PR (2010a) Cerebrospinal fluid collection and analysis in suspected sheep neurological disease. Small Rum Res 92:96-103.
Scott PR (2010b) Clinical approach to neurological conditions in sheep. Proceedings of meetings of the Sheep Veterinary Society volume 34, pp. 3-5.
Scott PR (2012) Diagnosis and treatment of coenurosis in sheep. Vet Parasitol 189:75-78.
Scott PR (2013) Analysis of samples of cerebrospinal fluid, thoracic ultrasonography and arthrocentesis/radiography of joints as ancillary aids to clinical diagnosis and treatment in small ruminant practice. Small Rumin Res 110:82-87.
Scott PR, Penny CD, Murray LD (1991) A field study of eight ovine vertebral body
Scott PR, Watt NJ, Woodman MP, McGorum B, McDiarmid A (1993) Protozoan encephalomyelitis causing pelvic limb paresis in a yearling sheep. N Z Vet J 41:139-141
Scott PR, Woodman MP (1993) An outbreak of pregnancy toxaemia in a flock of Scottish Blackface sheep. Vet Rec 133:597-598.
Selvaggi M, Dario C (2011). High mortality in Leccese inbred lambs. Small Rumin Res 99:34-36.
Sheahan BJ, Moore M, Atkins GJ (2012) The pathogenicity of louping ill virus for mice and lambs. J Comp Pathol 126:137-146.
Silva AM, Weiblen R, Irigoyen LF, Roehe PM, Sur HJ, Osorio FA, Flores EF (1999) Experimental infection of sheep with bovine herpesvirus type-5 (BHV-5): acute and latent infection. Vet Microbiol 66:89-99.
Simani S, Fayaz A, Rahimi R, Eslami N, Howeizi N, Biglari P (2012) Six fatal cases of classical rabies virus without biting incidents, Iran 1990-2010. J Clin Virol 54:251-254.
Smith FG, Nixon DA, Buckle RM, Alexander DR, Britton HG (1972) Parathyroid hormone in fetal and adult sheep - effect of hypocalcaemia. J Endocrinol 53:339-346.
Smith MC, George LW (2008) Diseases of the nervous system. In: (ed: Smith BP) Large Animal Internal Medicine, 4th edn. Mosby, St Louis, pp. 972-1110.
Smith MC, Sherman DM (2009) Goat Medicine, 2nd edn. Wiley, Iowa.
Solaiman SG, Maloney MA, Qureshi MA, Davis G, D’Andrea G (2001). Effects of high copper supplements on performance, health, plasma copper and enzymes in goats. Small Rumin Res 41:127-139.
Soli (1980). Chronic copper poisoning in sheep. review of the literature. Nord Vet Med 32:74-89.
Spearman JG (1988) Enzootic ataxia (copper deficiency) in young goats. Can Vet J 29:392.
Spengler D, Langer M, Von Stromberg H (1994). Pseudorabies in sheep. Praktische Tierarzt 75:21-24.
Steiner S, Chvala S, K rametter-Froetscher R, Henninger W (2006) Caprine arthritis-encephalitis, a case report: diagnostic investigation by means of magnetic resonance imaging. Wiener Tierarztl Monatss 93:183-188.
Stuen S (2012) Ticks and tick-borne infections in sheep in the Nordic countries. Small Rumin Res 106:14-15.
Stuen S (2013) Tick-borne infections in small ruminants in northern Europe. Small Rumin Res. 110:142-144.
Tirgari M, Howard BR, Boargob A (1987) Clinical and radiographical diagnosis of coenurosis cerebralis in sheep and
its surgical treatment. Vet Rec 120:173-178.
Tjornehoj K , Fooks AR, Agerholm JS, Ronsholt L (2006) Natural and experimental infection of sheep with European bat lyssavirus type-1 of Danish bat origin. J Comp Pathol 134:190-201.
Toker NY (2007) Blood serum vitamin A and E concentrations and distribution into lipoprotein fractions of pregnant sheep and newborn lambs. Rev Med Vet 158:413-417.
Toolan DP (1990) Enzootic ataxia (swayback) in kid goats. Ir Vet J 43:27-28.
Torina A, Caracappa S (2012) Tick-borne diseases in sheep and goats: clinical and diagnostic aspects. Small Rumin Res 106: S6-S11.
Tsiodras S, Dougas G, Baka A, Billinis C, Doudounakis S, Balaska A, Georgakopoulou T, Rigakos G, Kontos V,
Efstathiou P, Tsakris A, Hadjichristodoulou C, K remastinou J (2013) Re-emergence of animal rabies in northern Greece and subsequent human exposure, October 2012-March 2013. Eurosurveillance 18(18):2-6.
Ulvund MJ (2008). Ovine scrapie disease: do we have to live with it? Small Rumin Res 76:131-140.
Ulvund MJ (2012). Important sheep flock health issues in Scandinavia/northern Europe. Small Rumin Res 106:6-10.
Valiakos G, Fthenakis G, Spanos S, K orbou F, Spyroy V, Billinis C, Beer M, Schirrmeier H, Hoffmann H (2013). Detection of Schmallenberg virus (SBV) reactive antibodies in samples from ruminants in Greece. Promed Mail Announcement, Sep. 2013.
Van der Burgt GM (2005) An outbreak of suspected botulism in sheep. Proceedings of the 6th International Sheep Veterinary Congress (Hersonissos, Greece), p. 151.
Van der Lugt JJ, De Wet SC, Bastianello SS, K ellerman TS, Van Jaarsveld LP (1995) Two outbreaks of type C and type D botulism in sheep and goats in South Africa. J S Afr Vet Assoc 66:77-82.
Van Mosel M, Van K looster AT, Van Mosel F, Van Der K uilen J (1993). Effectrs of reducing dietary [(Na++K+)-(Cl-+SO4=)] on the rate of calcium mobilization by dairy cows at parturition. Res Vet Sci 54:1-9.
Vilar JM, Corbera JA, Ramirez GA (2010). Dystocia and paraparesis associated with intra-pelvic space-restricting
haematoma in a spanish ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica). J Appl Anim Sci 37:89-91.
Wessels ME, Scholes SFE, Thompson RM (2003) Daft lamb disease. Vet Rec 152:477-478.
Windsor PA, K essell AE, Finnie JW (2011) Review of neurological diseases of ruminant livestock in Australia. VI: postnatal bovine, and ovine and caprine, neurogenetic disorders. Aust Vet J 89:432-438.
Wood JNL, Done SH, Pritchard GC, Woolbridge MJA (1992). Natural scrapie in goats. Case histories and clinical signs. Vet Rec 131:66-68.
Xylouri E, Sabatakou O, Sakellariadi Th (2000) Meningoencephalitis caused by thermal disbudding in goat kids. Bull Hell Vet Med Soc 51:308-309.
Zhu Y, Z hang G, Shao M, Lei Y, Jiang Y, Tu C (2011) An outbreak of sheep rabies in Shanxi province, China. Epidemiol Infect 139:1453-1456.
