The discourse of resistance against spoken sexism
Published:
Jul 3, 2023
Keywords:
spoken sexism post-structuralism Foucauldian discourse analysis feminist discourse
Abstract
Spoken sexism, which remains up to this day a heavily understudied phenomenon, contributes incessantly to the preservation of patriarchy while reinforcing misogyny and sex-based oppression. The present paper focuses on how women discursively construct sexist comments as a cause for reaction, drawing upon a discourse of resistance, while sculpting a combative subject position. The 30 women who participated in the study took part voluntarily in individual semi-structured interviews, in order to share their views and experiences in relation to spoken sexism. For the analyses of the material, post-structuralism was taken as epistemological approach, while a Foucauldian discourse analysis (FDA) was used for the portrayal of the discourses. Due to the gendered nature of the subject under discussion and in acknowledgement that spoken sexism is discursively constructed within patriarchal structures of power, a feminist perspective was upheld in relation to the interpretation and discussion of the results. The findings reveal not only the resilient nature of sex-based oppression but also an increase in awareness as well as responsibility regarding the issue of spoken sexism.
Article Details
- How to Cite
-
Flouli, A., & Athanasiades, C. (2023). The discourse of resistance against spoken sexism. Psychology: The Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society, 28(1), 48–62. https://doi.org/10.12681/psy_hps.34687
- Section
- SPECIAL SECTION
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
The journal PSYCHOLOGY adopts a Platinum open-access policy. Submission, processing or publication costs are waived by the Hellenic Psychological Society. Papers published in the journal PSYCHOLOGY are licensed under a 'Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International' licence. The authors reserve the copyright of their work and grant the journal the right of its first publication. Third-party licensees are allowed to use the published paper immediately after publication as they wish, provided they retain the defined by the license copyright formalities, regarding the reference to its author(s) and its initial publication in the journal PSYCHOLOGY. Moreover, any adjusted work should be shared under the same reuse rights, so with the same CC license.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
Adams-Roy, J., & Barling, J. (1998). Predicting the decision to confront or report sexual harassment. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19, 329-336. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199807)19:4<329::AID-JOB857>3.0.CO;2-S
Ashburn-Nardo, L., & Karim, M. F. A. (2019). The CPR model: Decisions involved in confronting prejudiced responses. In R. K. Mallett, & M. J. Monteith (Eds.), Confronting prejudice and discrimination: The science of changing minds and behaviors. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2017-0-01959-6
Ayres, M. M., Friedman, C. K., & Leaper, C. (2009). Individual and situational factors related to young women’s likelihood of confronting sexism in their everyday lives. Sex Roles, 61, 449-460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9635-3
Barreto, M., & Ellemers, N. (2005). The burden of benevolent sexism: How it contributes to the maintenance of gender inequalities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 633-642. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.270
Becker, J. C., & Barreto, M. (2014). Ways to go: Men’s and women’s support for aggressive and non-aggressive confrontation of sexism as a function of gender identification. Journal of Social Issues, 70, 668-686. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12085
Becker, J., Glick, P., Ilic, M., & Bohner, G. (2011). Damned if she does, damned if she doesn’t: Consequences of accepting versus rejecting patronizing help for the female target and male actor. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41(6), 761-773. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.823
Becker, J. C., & Sibley, C. G. (2016). Sexism. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (pp. 315-336). Psychology Press.
Becker, J. C., & Swim, J. K. (2012). Reducing endorsement of benevolent and modern sexist beliefs: Differential effects of addressing harm versus pervasiveness of benevolent sexism. Social Psychology, 43, 127-137. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000091
Becker, J. C., Zawadzki, M. J., & Shields, S. A. (2014). Confronting and reducing sexism: A call for research on intervention. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 603-614. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12081
Berg, S. H. (2006). Everyday sexism and posttraumatic stress disorder in women: a correlational study. Violence against women, 12(10), 970-988. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801206293082
Bergman, M. E., Langhout, R. D., Palmieri, P. A., Cortina, L. M., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (2002). To tell or not to tell? Antecedents and consequences of reporting sexual harassment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 230-242. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.2.230
Bielska-Brodziak, A., Drapalska-Grochowicz, M., Peroni, C. and Rapetti, E. (2020) “Where feminists dare. The challenge to the hetero-patriarchal and neo-conservative backlash in Italy and Poland”, Oñati Socio-Legal Series, 10(1S), 38-66. https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl/0000-0000-0000-1156
Bosson, J. K., Pinel, E. C., & Vandello, J. A. (2010). The emotional impact of ambivalent sexism: Forecasts versus real experiences. Sex Roles, 62, 520-531. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9664-y
Brake, D. L. (2005). Retaliation. Minnesota Law Review, 90(1), 18-105. Retrieved from https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/mnlr90&i=38
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2013). Successful qualitative research: A practical guide for beginners. Sage.
Brooks, L., & Perot, A. R. (1991). Reporting sexual harassment: Exploring a predictive model. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15, 31-47. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14716402.1991.tb00476.x
Calogero, R. M., Herbozo, S., & Thompson, J. K. (2009). Complimentary weightism: The potential costs of appearance-related commentary for women’s self-objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33(1), 120-132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.01479.x
Calogero, R. M., & Jost, J. T. (2011). Self-subjugation among women: Exposure to sexist ideology, self-objectification, and the protective function of the need to avoid closure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 211-228. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021864
Chrisler, J. C., & Ferguson, S. (2006). Violence against women as a public health issue. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1087(1), 235-249. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1385.009
Connor, R. A., Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (2017). Ambivalent sexism in the twenty-first century. In C. G. Sibley & F. K. Barlow (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of the psychology of prejudice (pp. 295-320). Cambridge University Press.
Cowan, G., Mestlin, M., & Masek, J. (1992). Predictors of feminist self-labeling. Sex Roles, 27, 321-330. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289942
Crosby, F. J. (1993). Why complain? Journal of Social Issues, 49, 169-184. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1993.tb00916.x
Czopp, A. M. (2019). The consequences of confronting prejudice. In R. K. Mallett, & M. J.Monteith (Eds.), Confronting prejudice and discrimination: The science of changingminds and behaviors.Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814715-3.00005-9
Czopp, A. M., & Monteith, M. J. (2003). Confronting prejudice (literally): Reactions to confrontations of racial and gender bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 532-544. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167202250923
Czopp, A. M., Monteith, M. J., & Mark, A. Y. (2006). Standing up for a change: Reducing bias through interpersonal confrontation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 784-803. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.784
Dardenne, B., Dumont, M., & Bollier, T. (2007). Insidious dangers of benevolent sexism: Consequences for women’s performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 764-779. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.764
Dardenne, B., Dumont, M., Sarlet, M., Phillips, C., Balteau, E., Degueldre, C., Luxen, A., Salmon, E., Maquet, P., & Collette, F. (2013). Benevolent sexism alters executive brain responses. Neuroreport, 24(10), 572-577. https://doi.org/10.1097/WNR.0b013e3283625b5b
Davidson, M., Czopp, A. M., & Mark, A. Y. (2015). When sexism is persuasive: Agreement with hostile and benevolent sexism as a function of source gender. Social Influence, 10, 264-277. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2015.1095796
de Lemus, S., & Estevan-Reina, L. (2021). Influence of sexist language on motivation and feelings of ostracism. International Journal of Social Psychology, 36(1), 61-97. https://doi.org/10.1080/02134748.2020.1840230
di Grennaro, K., & Ritschel, C. (2019). Blurred lines: The relationship between catcalls and compliments. Women’s Studies International Forum, 75, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2019.102239
Dickter, C. L., Kittel, J. A., & Gyurovski, I. I. (2012). Perceptions of non-target confronters in response to racist and heterosexist remarks. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42,112-119. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.855
Dodd, E. H., Giuliano, T. A., Boutell, J. M., & Moran, B. E. (2001). Respected or rejected: Perceptions of women who confront sexist remarks. Sex Roles, 45, 567-577. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014866915741
Eliezer, D., & Major, B. (2012). It’s not your fault: The social costs of claiming discrimination on behalf of someone else. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 15(4), 487-502. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430211432894
Farmer, O., & Smock Jordan, S. (2017). Experiences of women coping with catcalling experiences in New York City: A pilot study. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 29, 205-225. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952833.2017.1373577
Fischer, A. R., Tokar, D. M., Mergl, M. M., Good, G. E., Hill, M. S., & Blum, S. A. (2000). Assessing women’s feminist identity development: Studies of convergent, discriminant, and structural validity. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 15-29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2000.tb01018.x
Fitzgerald, L. F., Swan, S., & Fischer, K. (1995). Why didn’t she just report him? The psychological and legal implications of women’s responses to sexual harassment. Journal of Social Issues, 51, 117-138. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1995.tb01312.x
Foster, M. D. (2013). Everyday confrontation of discrimination: The well-being costs and benefits to women over time. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 5, 135-154. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v5n3p135
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173-206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
Garaigordobil, M., & Maganto, C. (2013). Sexism and eating disorders: Gender differences, changes with age, and relations between both constructs. Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica, 18(3), 183-192. https://doi.org/10.5944/rppc.vol.18.num.3.2013.12919
Gervais, S. J., Hillard, A. L., & Vescio, T. K. (2010). Confronting sexism: The role of relationship orientation and gender. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 63(7-8), 463-474. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9838-7
Glick, P. (2014). Commentary: Encouraging confrontation. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 779-791. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12091
Good, J. J., Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Sanchez, D. T. (2012). When do we confront? Perceptions of costs and benefits predict confronting discrimination on behalf of the self and others. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 36, 210-226. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684312440958
Good, J. J., Woodzicka, J. A., Bourne, K. A., & Moss-Racusin, C. A. (2019). The decision to act: Factors that predict women’s and men’s decisions to confront sexism. In R. K. Mallett & M. J. Monteith (Eds.), Confronting prejudice and discrimination: The science of changing minds and behaviors (pp. 49-71). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814715-3.00003-5
Goodman, L. A., Koss, M. P., & Russo, N. F. (1993). Violence against women: Physical and mental health effects. Part I: Research findings. Applied and Preventative Psychology, 2, 79-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-1849(05)80114-3
Gruber, J. E., & Smith, M. D. (1995). Women’s responses to sexual harassment: a multivariate analysis. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 17, 543-562. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1704_7
Haslett, B. B., & Lipman, S. (1997). Micro inequalities: Up close and personal. In N. V. Benokraitis (Ed.), Subtle sexism: Current practice and prospects for change (pp. 34-53). Sage.
Hill, C., & Kearl, H. (2011). Crossing the line: Sexual harassment at school. American Association of University Women.
Hosang, G. M., & Bhui, K. (2018). Gender discrimination, victimization and women's mental health. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 213(6), 682-684. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.244
Hyers, L. (2007). Resisting prejudice every day: Exploring women’s assertive responses to anti-Black racism, antisemitism, heterosexism and sexism. Sex Roles, 56, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9142-8
Kaiser, C. R., & Miller, C. T. (2001). Stop complaining! The social costs of making attributions to discrimination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 254-263. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201272010
Kaiser, C. R., & Miller, C. T. (2003). Derogating the victim: The interpersonal consequences of blaming events on discrimination. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 6, 227-237. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302030063001
Kaiser, C. R., & Miller, C. T. (2004). A stress and coping perspective on confronting sexism. Psychology of women quarterly, 28(2), 168-178. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14716402.2004.00133.x
Kawakami, K., Karmali, F., & Vaccarino, E. (2019). Confronting intergroup bias: Predicted and actual responses to racism and sexism. In R. K. Mallett, & M. J. Monteith (Eds.), Confronting prejudice and discrimination: The science of changing minds and behaviors. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814715- 3.00001-1
LaFrance, M., & Woodzicka, J. A. (1998). No laughing matter: Women’s verbal and nonverbal reactions to sexist humor. Ιn J. Swim & C. Stagnor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target’s perspective (pp. 61-80). Academic Press.
Latting, J. K. (1993). Soliciting individual change in an interpersonal setting: The case of racially or sexually offensive language. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 29, 464-484. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886393294006
Lewandowska M. (2022). The fall of Roe v Wade: the fight for abortion rights is universal. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 377, o1608. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.o1608
Lisnek, J. A., Wilkins, C. L., Wilson, M. E., & Ekstrom, P. D. (2022). Backlash against the #MeToo movement: How women’s voice causes men to feel victimized. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 25(3), 682-702. https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302211035437
Liss, M., Crawford, M., & Popp, D. (2004). Predictors and correlates of collective action. Sex Roles, 50, 771-779. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000029096.90835.3f
McCabe, J. (2005). What’s in a label? The relationship between feminist self-identification and “feminist” attitudes among U. S. women and men. Gender & Society, 19, 480-505. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243204273498
Mallett, R. K., Ford, T. E., & Woodzicka, J. A. (2019). Ignoring sexism increases women’s tolerance of sexual harassment. Self and Identity. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2019.1678519
Mallett, R. K., & Melchiori, K. J. (2019). Goals drive responses to perceived discrimination. In R. K. Mallett & M. J. Monteith (Eds.), Confronting prejudice and discrimination: The science of changing minds and behaviors (pp. 95-120). Elsevier.
Mallett, R. K., & Wagner, D. E. (2011). The unexpectedly positive consequences of confronting sexism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47(1), 215-220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.10.001
Mazer, D. B., & Percival, E. F. (1989). Ideology or Experience? The relationships among perceptions, attitudes, and experiences of sexual harassment in university students. Sex Roles, 20, 135-147. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287987
McPhillips, R., & Speer, S. A. (2015). Sexist discourse. In K. Tracy (Ed.), International encyclopedia of language and social interaction (pp. 1349-1354). Wiley-Blackwell.
Mills, S. (2008). Language and Sexism. Cambridge University Press.
Monteith, M. J., Burns, M. D., & Hildebrand, L. L. (2019). Navigating successful confrontations: What should I say and how should I say it? In R. K. Mallett & M. J. Monteith (Eds.), Confronting prejudice and discrimination: The science of changing minds and behaviors (pp. 225-248). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814715-3.00006-0
Parker, L. R., Monteith, M. J., Moss-Racusin, C. A., & Van Camp, A. R. (2018). Promoting concern about gender bias with evidence-based confrontation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 74, 8-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.07.009
Pemberton, J. V., & Loeb, T. B. (2020). Impact of sexual and interpersonal violence and trauma on women: Trauma-informed practice and feminist theory. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 32(1-2), 115-131. https://doi.org/10.1080/08952833.2020.1793564
Peroni, C. and Rodak, L. (2020) “Introduction. The fourth wave of feminism: From social networking and self-determination to sisterhood”, Oñati Socio-Legal Series, 10(1S), p. 1-9. https://doi.org/10.35295/osls.iisl/0000-0000-0000-1160
Shelton, J. N., Richeson, J. A., Salvatore, J., & Hill, D. M. (2006). Silence is not golden: The intrapersonal consequences of not confronting prejudice. In S. Levin & C. van Laar (Eds.), Stigma and group inequality: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 65-81). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Shelton, J. N., & Stewart, R. E. (2004). Confronting perpetrators of prejudice: the inhibitory effects of social costs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 215-223. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00138.x
Sommers, S. (2011). Situations matter: Understanding how context transforms your world. Penguin.
Stangor, C., Swim, J. K., Van Allen, K. L., & Sechrist, G. B. (2002). Reporting discrimination in public and private contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 69-74. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-354.82.1.69
Sunderland, J. (2004). Gendered Discourses. Palgrave Macmillan.
Sun, N., & J.D. (2022). Overturning Roe v Wade: reproducing injustice. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 377, o1588. https://doi.org/10.136/bmj.o1588
Swim, J. K., & Cohen, L. L. (1997). Overt, covert, and subtle sexism: A comparison between the attitudes toward women and modern sexism scales. Psychology of women quarterly, 21(1), 103-118. https://doi.org/10.111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00103.x
Swim, J. K., Eyssell, K. M., Murdoch, E. Q., & Ferguson M. J. (2010). Self-silencing to sexism. Journal of Social Issues, 66, 493-507. https://doi.org/10.111/j.1540-4560.2010.01658.x
Swim, J. K., Ferguson, M. J., & Hyers, L. L. (1999). Avoiding stigma by association: Subtle prejudice against lesbians in the form of social distancing. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21(1), 61-68. https://doi.org/10.107/s15324834basp2101_6
Swim, J. K., & Hyers, L. L. (1999). Excuse me-what did you say?!: Women’s public and private responses to sexist remarks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 68-88. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.198.1370
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31-53. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.0200
Swim, J. K., & Thomas, M. A. (2006). Responding to everyday discrimination: A synthesis of research on goal directed, self-regulatory coping behaviors. In S. Lavin & C. Van Laar (Eds.), The Claremont Symposium on applied social psychology (pp. 105-126). Erlbaum.
Szymanski, D. M. (2004). Relations among dimensions of feminist and internalized heterosexism in lesbians and bisexual women. Sex Roles, 51, 145-159. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000037759.33014.55
Szymanski, D. M., Gupta, A., Carr, E. R., & Stewart, D. (2009). Internalized misogyny as a moderator of the link between sexist events and women’s psychological distress. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 61(1-2), 101-109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s1119-009-9611-y
Taylor, J. (2020). Why women are blamed for everything. Little Brown.
Willig, C. (2013). Introducing Qualitative Research in Psychology (3rd ed.). Open University Press.
Woodzicka, J. A., & LaFrance, M. (2001). Real versus imagined gender harassment. The Journal of Social Issues, 57, 15-30. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00199
Woodzicka, J., Mallett, R. & Melchiori, K. (2020). Gender differences in using humor to respond to sexist jokes. HUMOR, 33(2), 219-238. https://doi.org/10.1515/humor-2019-0018
Zucker, A. N. (2004). Disavowing social identities: What it means when women say, “I’m not a feminist, but...”Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 423-435. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2004.00159.x
